Psychology Of Singing

A Rational Method of Voice Culture
based on a Scientific Analysis of
all Systems, Ancient and Modern

By

David C. Taylor

 

 

 

New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1922
NEW YORK—BOSTON—CHICAGO—ATLANTA—SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., Limited
LONDON—BOMBAY—CALCUTTA—MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
TORONTO

All rights reserved
Copyright, 1908,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908.
Norwood Press:
Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

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To My Mother

whose devotion to truth and earnest
labor has prompted all my efforts
this work is affectionately dedicated

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Preface Contents Bibliography Index Notes

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PREFACE

A peculiar gap exists between the accepted theoretical basis of
instruction in singing and the actual methods of vocal teachers. Judging
by the number of scientific treatises on the voice, the academic
observer would be led to believe that a coherent Science of Voice
Culture has been evolved. Modern methods of instruction in singing are
presumed to embody a system of exact and infallible rules for the
management of the voice. Teachers of singing in all the musical centers
of Europe and America claim to follow a definite plan in the training of
voices, based on established scientific principles. But a practical
acquaintance with the modern art of Voice Culture reveals the fact that
the laws of tone-production deduced from the scientific investigation of
the voice do not furnish a satisfactory basis for a method of training
voices.

Throughout the entire vocal profession, among singers, teachers, and
students alike, there is a general feeling of the insufficiency of
present knowledge of the voice. The problem of the correct management of
the vocal organs has not been finally and definitely solved. Voice
Culture has not been reduced to an exact science. Vocal teachers are not
in possession of an infallible method of training voices. Students of
singing find great difficulty in learning how to use their voices. Voice
Culture is generally recognized as entitled to a position among the
exact sciences; but something remains to be done before it can assume
that position.

There must be some definite reason for the failure of theoretical
investigation to produce a satisfactory Science of Voice Culture. This
cannot be due to any present lack of understanding of the vocal
mechanism on the part of scientific students of the subject. The anatomy
and physiology of the vocal organs have been exhaustively studied by a
vast number of highly trained experts. So far as the muscular operations
of tone-production are concerned, and the laws of acoustics bearing on
the vocal action, no new discovery can well be expected. But in this
very fact, the exhaustive attention paid to the mechanical operations
of the voice, is seen the incompleteness of Vocal Science. Attention has
been turned exclusively to the mechanical features of tone-production,
and in consequence many important facts bearing on the voice have been
overlooked.

In spite of the general acceptance of the doctrines of Vocal Science,
tone-production has not really been studied from the purely scientific
standpoint. The use of the word “science” presupposes the careful
observation and study of all facts and phenomena bearing in any way on
the subject investigated. Viewed in this light, the scientific study of
the voice is at once seen to be incomplete. True, the use of the voice
is a muscular operation, and a knowledge of the muscular structure of
the vocal organs is necessary to an understanding of the voice. But this
knowledge alone is not sufficient. Like every other voluntary muscular
operation, tone-production is subject to the psychological laws of
control and guidance. Psychology is therefore of equal importance with
anatomy and acoustics as an element of Vocal Science.

There is also another line along which all previous investigation of
the voice is singularly incomplete. An immense fund of information about
the vocal action is obtained by attentive listening to voices, and in no
other way. Yet this important element in Vocal Science is almost
completely neglected.

In order to arrive at an assured basis for the art of Voice Culture, it
is necessary in the first place to apply the strictest rules of
scientific investigation to the study of the voice. A definite plan must
be adopted, to include every available source information. First, the
insight into the operations of the voice, obtained by listening to
voices, must be reviewed and analyzed. Second, the sciences of anatomy,
mechanics, acoustics, and psychology must each contribute its share to
the general fund of information. Third, from all the facts thus brought
together the general laws of vocal control and management must be
deduced.

Before undertaking this exhaustive analysis of the vocal action it is
advisable to review in detail every method of instruction in singing now
in vogue. This may seem a very difficult task. To the casual observer
conditions in the vocal world appear truly chaotic. Almost every
prominent teacher believes himself to possess a method peculiarly his
own; it would not be easy to find two masters who agree on every point,
practical as well as theoretical. But this confusion of methods is only
on the surface. All teachers draw the materials of their methods from
the same sources. An outline of the history of Voice Culture, including
the rise of the old Italian school and the development of Vocal Science,
will render the present situation in the vocal profession sufficiently
clear.

Part I of this work contains a review of modern methods. In Part II a
critical analysis is offered of certain theories of the vocal action
which receive much attention in practical instruction. Several of the
accepted doctrines of Vocal Science, notably those of breath-control,
chest and nasal resonance, and forward placing of the tone, are found on
examination to contain serious fallacies. More important even than the
specific errors involved in these doctrines, the basic principle of
modern Voice Culture is also found to be false. All methods are based on
the theory that the voice requires to be directly and consciously
managed in the performance of its muscular operations. When tested by
the psychological laws of muscular guidance, this theory of mechanical
tone-production is found to be a complete error.

Part III contains a summary of all present knowledge of the voice.
First, the insight into the singer’s vocal operations is considered,
which the hearer obtains by attentive listening to the tones produced.
This empirical knowledge, as it is generally called, indicates a state
of unnecessary throat tension as the cause, or at any rate the
accompaniment, of every faulty tone. Further, an outline is given of all
scientific knowledge of the voice. The anatomy of the vocal organs, and
the acoustic and mechanical principles of the vocal action, are briefly
described. Finally, the psychological laws of tone-production are
considered. It is seen that under normal conditions the voice
instinctively obeys the commands of the ear.

In Part IV the information about the vocal action obtained from the two
sources is combined,—the scientific knowledge of mechanical processes,
and the empirical knowledge derived from attentive listening to voices.
Throat stiffness is then seen to be the one influence which can
interfere with the instinctively correct action of the voice. The most
important cause of throat stiffness is found in the attempt consciously
to manage the mechanical operations of the voice. In place of the
erroneous principles of mechanical instruction, imitation is seen to be
the rational foundation of a method of Voice Culture. The mystery
surrounding the old Italian method is dispelled so soon as the
possibility is recognized of teaching singing by imitation. Practical
rules are outlined for imparting and acquiring the correct use of the
voice, through the guidance of the sense of hearing. The singer’s
education is considered in its broadest sense, and training in
tone-production is assigned to its proper place in the complex scheme of
Voice Culture.

During the past twenty years the author has found opportunity to hear
most of the famous singers who have visited America, as well as a host
of artists of somewhat lesser fame. In his early student days the
conviction grew that the voice cannot reach its fullest development when
mechanically used. Siegfried does not forge his sword, and at the same
time think of his diaphragm or soft palate. Lucia cannot attend to the
movements of her arytenoid cartilages while pouring out the trills and
runs of her Mad Scene. A study of the theoretical works on Vocal
Science, dealing always with mechanical action and never with tone,
served only to strengthen this conviction. Finally the laws of
physiological psychology were found to confirm this early belief.

Every obtainable work on Voice Culture has been included in the author’s
reading. No desire must be understood to make a display of the results
of this study. One citation from a recognized authority, or in some
cases two or three, is held sufficient to verify each statement
regarding the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science. As for the practical
features of modern methods, the facts alleged cannot in every case be
substantiated by references to published works. It is, however, believed
that the reader’s acquaintance with the subject will bear out the
author’s statements.

This work is of necessity academic in conception and in substance. Its
only purpose is to demonstrate the falsity of the idea of mechanical
vocal management, and to prove the scientific soundness of instruction
by imitation. There is no possibility of a practical manual of
instruction in singing being accepted, based on the training of the ear
and the musical education of the singer, until the vocal world has been
convinced of the error of the mechanical idea. When that has been
accomplished this work will have served its purpose. All of the
controversial materials, together with much of the theoretical subject
matter, will then be superfluous. A concise practical treatise can then
be offered, containing all that the vocal teacher and the student of
singing need to know about the training and management of the voice.

It is in great measure due to the coöperation of my dear friend, Charles
Leonard-Stuart, that my theory of voice production is brought into
literary form, and presented in this book. To his thorough musicianship,
his skill and experience as a writer of English, and especially to his
mastery of the bookman’s art, I am deeply indebted. True as I know
Leonard-Stuart’s love to be for the art of pure singing, I yet prefer to
ascribe his unselfish interest in this work to his friendship for the
author.

[Pg 1]

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CONTENTS

PART I
Modern Methods of Instruction in Singing
	PAGE
CHAPTER I
Tone-Production and Voice Culture	3
CHAPTER II
Breathing and Breath-Control	20
CHAPTER III
Registers and Laryngeal Action	34
CHAPTER IV
Resonance	54
CHAPTER V
Empirical Materials of Modern Methods	67
CHAPTER VI
A General View of Modern Voice Culture	92
PART II
A Critical Analysis of Modern Methods
CHAPTER I
Mechanical Vocal Management as the Basis of Voice Culture	109
CHAPTER II
The Fallacy of the Doctrine of Breath-Control	117
CHAPTER III
The Fallacies of Forward Emission, Chest Resonance, and Nasal Resonance	125
CHAPTER IV
The Futility of the Materials of Modern Methods	130
CHAPTER V
The Error of the Theory of Mechanical Vocal Management	135
PART III
The Basis of a Real Science of Voice
CHAPTER I
The Means of Empirical Observation of the Voice	151
CHAPTER II
Sympathetic Sensations of Vocal Tone	162
CHAPTER III
Empirical Knowledge of the Voice	176
CHAPTER IV
The Empirical Precepts of the Old Italian School	186
CHAPTER V
Empirical Knowledge in Modern Voice Culture	198
CHAPTER VI
Scientific Knowledge of the Voice	210
PART IV
Vocal Science and Practical Voice Culture
CHAPTER I
The Correct Vocal Action	237
CHAPTER II
The Causes of Throat Stiffness and of Incorrect Vocal Action	247
CHAPTER III
Throat Stiffness and Incorrect Singing	262
CHAPTER IV
The True Meaning of Vocal Training	275
CHAPTER V
Imitation the Rational Basis of Voice Culture	291
CHAPTER VI
The Old Italian Method	304
CHAPTER VII
The Disappearance of the Old Italian Method and the Development of Mechanical Instruction	320
CHAPTER VIII
The Materials of Rational Instruction in Singing	341
CHAPTER IX
Outlines of a Practical Method of Voice Culture	361
Bibliography	369
Index

[Pg 3]

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CHAPTER I

TONE-PRODUCTION AND VOICE CULTURE

In no other form of expression do art and nature seem so closely
identified as in the art of singing. A perfect voice speaks so directly
to the soul of the hearer that all appearance of artfully prepared
effect is absent. Every tone sung by a consummate vocal artist seems to
be poured forth freely and spontaneously. There is no evidence of
calculation, of carefully directed effort, of attention to the workings
of the voice, in the tones of a perfect singer. Yet if the accepted idea
of Voice Culture is correct, this semblance of spontaneity in the use of
the voice can result only from careful and incessant attention to
mechanical rules. That the voice must be managed or handled in some way
neither spontaneous nor instinctive, is the settled conviction of almost
every authority on the subject. All authorities believe also that this
manner of handling the voice must be acquired by every student of
singing, in the course of carefully directed study.[Pg 4]

This training in the use of the voice is the most important feature of
education in singing. Voice Culture embraces a peculiar and distinct
problem, that of the correct management of the vocal organs. Vocal
training has indeed come to be considered synonymous with training in
the correct use of the voice. Every method of instruction in singing
must contain as its most important element some means for dealing with
the problem of tone-production.

No complete and satisfactory solution of this problem has ever been
found. Of this fact every one acquainted with the practical side of
Voice Culture must be well aware. As the present work is designed solely
to suggest a new manner of dealing with this question, it is advisable
to define precisely what is meant by the problem of tone-production.

In theory the question may be stated very simply. It is generally
believed throughout the vocal profession that the voice has one correct
mode of action, different from a wide variety of incorrect actions of
which it is capable;—that this mode of action, though ordained by
Nature, is not in the usual sense natural[Pg 5] or instinctive;—that the
correct vocal action must be acquired, through a definite understanding
and conscious management of the muscular movements involved. The
theoretical problem therefore is: What is the correct vocal action, and
how can it be acquired?

On the practical side, the nature of the problem is by no means so
simple. In actual instruction in singing, the subject of vocal
management cannot readily be dissociated from the wide range of other
topics comprised in the singer’s education. In much that pertains to the
art of music, the singer’s training must include the same subjects that
form the training of every musician. In addition to this general musical
training, about the same for all students of music, each student must
acquire technical command of the chosen instrument. This is necessarily
acquired by practice on the instrument, whether it be piano, violin,
oboe, or whatever else. In the same way, vocal technique is acquired by
practice in actual singing. Practice makes perfect, with the voice as
with everything else.

But the voice is not invariably subject to the law that practice makes
perfect. In this [Pg 6]important respect the singer’s education presents a
problem not encountered by the student of any instrument. Given the
necessary talents, industry, and opportunities for study, the student of
the violin may count with certainty on acquiring the mastery of this
instrument. But for the vocal student this is not necessarily true.
There are many cases in which practice in singing does not bring about
technical perfection. The mere singing of technical exercises is not
enough; it is of vital importance that the exercises be sung in some
particular manner. There is one certain way in which the voice must be
handled during the practice of singing. If the vocal organs are
exercised in this particular manner, the voice will improve steadily as
the result of practice. This progress will continue until perfect
technical command of the voice is acquired. But if the vocal student
fails to hit upon this particular way of handling the voice in practice
the voice will improve little, or not at all. In such a case perfect
vocal technique will never be acquired, no matter how many years the
practice may continue.

What is this peculiar way in which the voice must be handled during the
practice of singing?[Pg 7] This is the practical problem of tone-production,
as it confronts the student of singing.

It is important that the exact bearing of the problem be clearly
understood. It is purely a feature of education in singing, and concerns
only teachers and students of the art. Properly speaking, the finished
singer should leave the teacher and start on the artistic career,
equipped with a voice under perfect control. There should be no problem
of tone-production for the trained singer, no thought or worry about the
vocal action. True, many authorities on the voice maintain that the
artist must, in all singing, consciously and intelligently guide the
operations of the vocal organs. But even if this be the case the fact
remains that this ability to manage the voice must be acquired during
student days. In seeking a solution of the problem, that period in the
prospective singer’s training must be considered during which the proper
use of the voice is learned.

It may be taken for granted that teachers of singing have always been
aware of the existence of the problem of tone-production, and have
always instructed their pupils in the correct management of the voice.
Yet it is only within[Pg 8] the past hundred and fifty years that vocal
management has been the subject of special study. A brief review of the
history of Voice Culture will serve to bring this fact out clearly.

To begin with, the present art of singing is of comparatively recent
origin. It is indeed probable that man had been using the voice in
something akin to song for thousands of years before the dawn of
history. Song of some kind has always played an important part in human
life, savage as well as civilized. To express our emotions and feelings
by means of the voice is one of our most deep-seated instincts. For this
use of the voice to take on the character of melody, as distinguished
from ordinary speech, is also purely instinctive. Singing was one of the
most zealously cultivated arts in early Egypt, in ancient Israel, and in
classic Greece and Rome. Throughout all the centuries of European
history singing has always had its recognized place, both in the
services of the various churches and in the daily life of the people.

But solo singing, as we know it to-day, is a comparatively modern art.
Not until the closing decades of the sixteenth century did the art of
solo[Pg 9] singing receive much attention, and it is to that period we must
look for the beginnings of Voice Culture. It is true that the voice was
cultivated, both for speech and song, among the Greeks and Romans.
Gordon Holmes, in his Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene
(London, 1879), gives an interesting account of these ancient systems of
Voice Culture. But practically nothing has come down to us about the
means then used for training the voice. Even if any defined methods were
developed, it is absolutely certain that these had no influence on the
modern art of Voice Culture.

With the birth of Italian opera, in 1600, a new art of singing also came
into existence. The two arts, opera and singing, developed side by side,
each dependent on the other. And most important to the present inquiry,
the art or science of training voices also came into being. In Le
Revoluzioni del Teatro Musicale Italiano (Venice, 1785), Arteaga says
of the development of opera: “But nothing contributed so much to clarify
Italian music at that time as the excellence and the abundance of the
singers.” A race of singing masters seems almost to have sprung up in
Italy.[Pg 10] These illustrious masters taught the singers to produce effects
with their voices such as had never been heard of before. From 1600 to
1750 the progress of the art of singing was uninterrupted. Each great
teacher carried the art a little further, discovering new beauties and
powers in the voice, and finding means to impart his new knowledge to
his pupils.

This race of teachers is known to-day as the Old Italian School, and
their system of instruction is called the Old Italian Method. Just what
this method consisted of is a much-discussed question. Whatever its
system of instruction, the old Italian school seems to have suffered a
gradual decline. In 1800 it was distinctly on the wane; it was entirely
superseded, during the years from 1840 to 1865, by the modern scientific
methods.

Considered as a practical system of Voice Culture, the old Italian
method is a highly mysterious subject. Little is now known about the
means used for training students of singing in the correct use of the
voice. This much is fairly certain: the old masters paid little or no
attention to what are now considered scientific principles. They taught
in what modern vocal theorists consider a rather[Pg 11] haphazard fashion. The
term “empirical” is often applied to their method, and to the knowledge
of the voice on which it was based.[1] But as to what the old masters
actually knew about the voice, and just how they taught their pupils to
sing, on these points the modern world is in almost complete ignorance.
Many attempts have been made in recent years to reconstruct the old
Italian method in the light of modern scientific knowledge of the voice.
But no such analysis of the empirical system has ever been convincing.

How the practical method of the old masters came to be forgotten is
perhaps the most mysterious feature of this puzzling system. There has
been a lineal succession of teachers of singing, from the earlier
decades of the eighteenth century down to the present. Even to-day it is
almost unheard of that any one should presume to call himself a teacher
of singing without having studied with at least one recognized master.
Each master of the old school imparted his knowledge and his practical
method to his pupils. Those of his pupils[Pg 12] who in their turn became
teachers passed the method on to their students, and so on, in many
unbroken successions. Yet, for some mysterious reason, the substance of
the old method was lost in transmission.

What little is now known about the old method is derived from two
sources, the written record and tradition. To write books in explanation
of their system of instruction does not seem to have occurred to the
earliest exponents of the art of Voice Culture. The first published work
on the subject was that of Pietro Francesco Tosi, Osservazione sopra il
Canto figurato, brought out in Bologna in 1723. This was translated
into English by M. Galliard, and published in London in 1742; a German
translation by J. F. Agricola was issued in 1757. The present work will
call for several citations from Tosi, all taken from the English
edition. Only one other prominent teacher of the old school, G. B.
Mancini, has left an apparently complete record of his method. His
Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto figurato was published in Milan in
1776. Mancini’s book has never been translated into English. Reference[Pg 13]
will therefore be made to the third Italian edition, brought out in
Milan, 1777.

Tosi and Mancini undoubtedly intended to give complete accounts of the
methods of instruction in singing in vogue in their day. But modern
vocal theorists generally believe that the most important materials of
instruction were for some reason not mentioned. Three registers are
mentioned by Tosi, while Mancini speaks of only two. Both touch on the
necessity of equalizing the registers, but give no specific directions
for this purpose. About all these early writers have left us, in the
opinion of most modern students of their works, is the outline of an
elaborate system of vocal ornaments and embellishments.

On the side of tradition a slightly more coherent set of rules has come
down to us from the old masters. These are generally known as the
“traditional precepts.” Just when the precepts were first formulated it
is impossible to say. Tosi and Mancini do not mention them. Perhaps they
were held by the old masters as a sort of esoteric mystery; this idea is
occasionally put forward. At any rate, by the time the traditional
precepts were given to the world in published[Pg 14] works on the voice, their
valuable meaning had been completely lost.

Gathered from all available sources, the traditional precepts are as
follows:

“Sing on the breath.”

“Open the throat.”

“Sing the tone forward,” or “at the lips.”

“Support the tone.”

To the layman these precepts are so vague as to be almost
unintelligible. But modern vocal teachers are convinced that the
precepts sum up the most important means used by the old masters for
imparting the correct vocal action. An interpretation of the precepts in
terms intelligible to the modern student would therefore be extremely
valuable. Many scientific investigators of the voice have sought
earnestly to discover the sense in which the precepts were applied by
the old masters. These explanations of the traditional precepts occupy a
very important position in most modern methods of instruction.

There can be no question that the old masters were highly successful
teachers of singing. Even leaving out of consideration the vocal
achievements of the castrati, the singers of Tosi’s day[Pg 15] must have been
able to perform music of the florid style in a masterly fashion. This is
plainly seen from a study of the scores of the operas popular at that
time. Empirical methods of instruction seem to have sufficed for the
earlier masters. Not until the old method had been in existence for
nearly one hundred and fifty years does an attempt seem to have been
made to study the voice scientifically. In 1741 a famous French
physician, Ferrein, published a treatise on the vocal organs. This was
the first scientific work to influence the practices of vocal teachers.

For many years after the publication of Ferrein’s treatise, the
scientific study of the voice attracted very little attention from the
singing masters. Fully sixty years elapsed before any serious attempt
was made to base a method of instruction on scientific principles. Even
then the idea of scientific instruction in singing gained ground very
slowly. Practical teachers at first paid but little attention to the
subject. Interest in the mechanics of voice production was confined
almost entirely to the scientists.

In the early decades of the nineteenth century the mechanical features
of voice production seem[Pg 16] to have appealed to a constantly wider circle
of scientists. Lickovius (1814), Malgaine (1831), Bennati (1830), Bell
(1832), Savart (1825), brought out works on the subject. It remained,
however, for a vocal teacher, Garcia, to conceive the idea of basing
practical instruction on scientific knowledge.

Manuel Garcia (1805-1906) may justly be regarded as the founder of Vocal
Science. His father, Manuel del Popolo Viscenti, was famous as singer,
impresario, and teacher. From him Garcia inherited the old method, it is
safe to assume, in its entirety. But for Garcia’s remarkable mind the
empirical methods of the old school were unsatisfactory. He desired
definite knowledge of the voice. A clear idea seems to have been in his
mind that, with full understanding of the vocal mechanism and of its
correct mode of action, voices would be more readily and surely trained.
How strongly this idea had possession of Garcia is shown by the fact
that he began the study of the vocal action in 1832, and that he
invented the laryngoscope only in 1855.

It must not be understood that Garcia was the first teacher to attempt
to formulate a systematic[Pg 17] scheme of instruction in singing. In the
works of Mannstein (1834) and of Marx (1823) an ambitious forward
movement on the part of many prominent teachers is strongly indicated.
But Garcia was the first teacher to apply scientific principles in
dealing with the specific problem of tone-production. He conceived the
idea that a scientific knowledge of the workings of the vocal organs
might be made the basis of a practical system or method of instruction
in singing. This idea of Garcia has been the basic principle of all
practical methods, ever since the publication of the results of his
first laryngoscopic investigations in 1855.

Before attempting to suggest a new means of dealing with the problem of
vocal management, it is well to ascertain how this problem is treated in
modern methods of instruction. It would not be easy to overstate the
importance assigned to the matter of tone-production in all modern
systems of Voice Culture. The scientific study of the voice has dealt
exclusively with this subject. A new science has resulted, commonly
called “Vocal Science.” This science is generally accepted as the
foundation of all instruction in singing. All[Pg 18] modern methods are to
some extent based on Vocal Science.

To arrive at an understanding of modern methods, the two directions in
which vocal theorists have approached the scientific study of the voice
must be borne in mind: First, by an investigation of the anatomy of the
vocal organs, and of the laws of acoustics and mechanics in accordance
with which they operate. Second, by an analysis of the traditional
precepts of the old Italian school in the light of this scientific
knowledge.

As the present work demands a review of modern methods from the
practical side only, it is not necessary to include a description of the
vocal organs. It will be sufficient to describe briefly the manner in
which scientific investigators of the voice treat the subject of the
vocal organs.

The vocal mechanism consists of three portions,—the breathing
apparatus, the larynx with its appendages, and the resonance cavities.
Vocal scientists apply their efforts to finding out the correct mode of
action of each portion of the mechanism, and to formulating rules and
exercises by which these correct actions can be acquired and combined
for the production of perfect tones.[Pg 19] The analysis of the traditional
precepts also conforms to this general plan; each precept is referred to
that portion of the vocal apparatus to which it seems best to apply. The
outline of the principles of modern methods contained in the following
chapters follows this general scheme.

It must be understood at the start that on most of the doctrines
included in Vocal Science there is no unanimity of opinion among either
theorists or teachers. Far from this being the case, practically all the
principles of Vocal Science are the subjects of controversy.[Pg 20]

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CHAPTER II

BREATHING AND BREATH-CONTROL

It is generally considered that, as the breath is the foundation of
singing, the manner of breathing is of vital importance to the singer.
This subject has therefore received a vast amount of attention from
vocal scientists, and the muscular actions of breathing have been
exhaustively studied.

Several sets of rules for inspiration and expiration are put forth by
different authorities. But there is no occasion for going into a
detailed discussion of the different modes of breathing advocated by the
various schools, or of the theoretical arguments which each advances. It
is sufficient to say that the modes of breathing most in vogue are five
in number,—deep abdominal, lateral or costal, fixed high chest,
clavicular, and diaphragmatic-abdominal. However, on experimenting with
these five systems of breathing, it is found that the number may be
reduced to two; of these the[Pg 21] others are but slight modifications. In
one system of inspiration the abdomen is protruded, while the upper
chest is held firm, the greatest expansion being at the base of the
lungs. In the other mode of taking breath the abdomen is slightly drawn
in, while the chest is expanded in every direction, upward, laterally,
forward, and backward. In this system the upper chest is held in a fixed
and high position.

Necessarily the manner of filling the lungs involves the manner in which
they are emptied. Opinions are practically unanimous as to the proper
position of the singer before taking breath, that is, at the end of an
expiration. The singer must stand erect, the weight of the body evenly
supported on the balls of both feet, with the whole body in a condition
of lithe suppleness. In both systems of breathing the manner of
expiration is simply a return to this position.

A wide variety of breathing exercises are in use, but these do not
require detailed description. Any one of the prescribed systems of
breathing can easily be adopted, and the student of singing seldom
encounters any difficulty on this point. Still most teachers attach
great importance to the[Pg 22] acquirement of the correct manner of breathing.
Toneless mechanical exercises are generally given, by which the student
is expected to master the muscular movements before applying in singing
the system advocated by the teacher. These exercises are usually
combined with those for breath-control, and they are described under
that head.

Breath-Control

Very early in the development of Vocal Science the management of the
breath began to receive attention. Mannstein,[2] writing in 1834, says:
“The air in expiration must stream from the chest slowly and without
shock. The air must flow from the chest with the tone.” In a footnote he
adds: “In order to acquire this economy of the breath, students were
required to practise daily, without singing, to take and to hold back
the breath as long as possible.” Mannstein does not mention the muscular
action involved in this exercise.

This subject is also touched upon by Garcia. In the first edition of his
École de Garcia, 1847, Chap. IV, p. 14, he says: “The mechanism of[Pg 23]
expiration consists of a gentle pressure on the lungs charged with air,
operated by the thorax and the diaphragm. The shock of the chest, the
sudden falling of the ribs, and the quick relaxing of the diaphragm
cause the air to escape instantly…. If, while the lungs are filled
with air, the ribs are allowed to fall, and the diaphragm to rise, the
lungs instantly give up the inspired air, like a pressed sponge. It is
necessary therefore to allow the ribs to fall and the diaphragm to relax
only so much as is required to sustain the tones.” It may be questioned
whether Garcia had in mind the doctrine of breath-control as this is
understood to-day. Very little attention was paid, at any rate, in the
vocal instruction of that day, to the mechanical actions of
breath-control; the great majority of teachers probably had never heard
of this principle.

As a definite principle of Vocal Science, breath-control was first
formulated by Dr. Mandl, in his Die Gesundheitslehre der Stimme,
Brunswick, 1876. From that time on, this doctrine has been very
generally recognized as the fundamental principle of correct singing.
Practically every scientific writer on the voice since then states[Pg 24]
breath-control as one of the basic principles of Vocal Science. The most
influential published work in popularizing the doctrine of
breath-control was probably the book written jointly by Lennox Browne
and Emil Behnke, Voice, Song, and Speech, London, 1883.

This doctrine is of so much importance in Vocal Science and in modern
methods of instruction as to require a detailed explanation. The theory
of breath-control may be stated as follows:[3]

“In ordinary breathing the air is expelled from the lungs quietly, but
rapidly; at no point of the breathing apparatus does the expired breath
meet with resistance. In singing, on the contrary, the expiratory
pressure is much more powerful, yet the expiration must be much slower.
Furthermore, all the expired breath must be converted into tone, and the
singer must have perfect control over the strength and the speed of the
expiration. This requires that the air be held back at some point. The
action of holding back the breath must[Pg 25] not be performed by the muscles
which close the glottis, for all the muscles of the larynx are very
small and weak in comparison with the powerful muscles of expiration.
The glottis-closing muscles are too weak to oppose their action to the
force of a powerful expiration. If the vocal cords are called upon to
withstand a strong breath pressure, they are seriously strained, and
their proper action is rendered impossible. In the same way, if the
throat be narrowed at any point above the larynx, so as to present a
passage small enough to hold back a powerful expiration, the entire
vocal mechanism is strained and forced out of its proper adjustment. The
singer must have perfect control of the breath, and at the same time
relieve the larynx and throat of all pressure and strain. To obtain this
control the singer must govern the expiration by means of the muscles of
inspiration. When the lungs are filled the inspiratory muscles are not
to be relaxed as in ordinary breathing, but are to be held on tension
throughout the action of expiration. Whatever pressure is exerted by the
expiratory muscles must be almost counterbalanced by the opposed action
of the muscles of inspiration. The more powerful[Pg 26] the blast, the greater
must be the exertion by which it is controlled. In this way the singer
may have perfect control both of the speed and of the strength of the
expiration.”

The exercises for acquiring command of this “opposed action
breath-control” are easily understood; indeed, they will readily suggest
themselves to one who has grasped their purpose. Most important of these
exercises is a quick inspiration, followed by a slow and controlled
expiration. Exercises for breathing and breath-control are usually
combined; the student is instructed to take breath in the manner
advocated by the teacher, and then to control the expiration.

Teachers usually require their pupils to obtain command of this action
as a toneless exercise before permitting them to apply it to the
production of tone. Methods vary greatly as to the length of time
devoted to toneless drills in breathing and breath-control. Many
teachers demand that students practise these exercises daily throughout
the entire course of study, and even recommend that this practice be
continued throughout the singer’s active life.[Pg 27]

Simple as these exercises are in theory, they demand very arduous
practice. Control of the breath by “opposed action” is hard and tiring
muscular work, as the reader may easily convince himself by practising
the above described exercise for a few minutes.

No special rules are needed for applying this mode of breathing to the
production of tone. Theoretical writers generally do not claim that the
control of the breath brings about the correct laryngeal action, but
merely that it permits this action by noninterference. Several
authorities however, notably Shakespeare, maintain that in effect this
system of breath-control embodies the old precept, “Sing on the breath.”
(Wm. Shakespeare, The Art of Singing, London, 1898, p. 24.) Other
theorists hold that the empirical precept, “Support the tone,” refers to
this manner of controlled expiration. (G. B. Lamperti, The Technics of
Bel Canto, Trans. by Dr. Th. Baker, N. Y., 1905, p. 9.)

The “Breath-band” System

While most authorities on the voice advocate the system of
breath-control by “opposed [Pg 28]muscular action,” there are a number of
masters who teach an entirely different system. This is usually known as
the “Breath-band,” or “Ventricular” breath-control. Charles Lunn, in
The Philosophy of the Voice, 1878, was the first to propound the
theory that the breath may be controlled by the false vocal cords. There
is reason to believe that this idea was also worked out independently by
Orlando Steed (“On Beauty of Touch and Tone,” Proceedings of the
Musical Assn., 1879-80, p. 47). As a number of prominent teachers base
their entire methods on this theory, it is worthy of careful attention.
The “breath-band” theory may be stated as follows:

“When the lungs are filled by a deep inspiration and the breath is held,
the glottis is of necessity closed so tightly that no air can escape. In
this condition the expiratory muscles may be very violently contracted,
and still no air will escape; indeed, the greater the strength exerted
the tighter is the closure of the glottis. Obviously, this closure of
the glottis cannot be effected by the contraction of the glottis-closing
muscles, strictly speaking, for these muscles are too small and weak to
withstand the powerful air pressure[Pg 29] exerted against the vocal cords.[4]
The point of resistance is located just above the vocal cords. The
sudden air pressure exerted on the interior walls of the larynx by the
expiratory contraction causes the ventricles of the larynx to expand by
inflation. This inflation of the ventricles brings their upper margins,
formed by the false vocal cords, into contact. Thus the opening from the
larynx into the pharynx is closed. This closure is not effected by any
muscular contraction, therefore it is not dependent on the strength of
the muscular fibers of the false vocal cords. It is an automatic
valvular action, directly under voluntary control so far as the
contraction of the expiratory muscles is concerned, but independent of
volition as regards the action of the false vocal cords. On account of
their important function in this operation the false vocal cords are
called the ‘breath-bands.’ Closure of the glottis by the inflation[Pg 30] of
the ventricles imposes no strain on the vocal cords.

“Control of the breath in singing is effected by this automatic valvular
action. To produce a tone according to this system, the lungs must be
filled and the breath held in the manner just described, while the vocal
cords are brought to the proper degree of tension; then the tone is
started by allowing the ‘breath-bands’ to separate very slightly, so
that a thin stream of air is forced through the opening between their
margins. The tone is ushered in by a slight explosive sound, which is
nothing but the well-known stroke of the glottis. So long as the
expiratory pressure is steadily maintained, this tone may be held, and
yet no strain is imposed on the vocal cords. Perfect control of the
breath is thus attained. For a powerful tone, the breath blast is
greater, therefore the ventricles are more widely inflated, and the
opening between the ‘breath-bands’ becomes narrower. The action is
always automatic; once the tone is correctly started, the singer need
pay no further attention to the operation of the ‘breath-bands.’ All
that is necessary is to maintain a steady breath pressure.”[Pg 31]

In the methods of all the “breath-band” advocates, the first and most
important step toward perfect tone-production is held to be the
acquirement of this automatic breath-control. As in the “opposed
muscular” system, the initial exercises are toneless drills in
breathing. The basic exercise, of which all the others are variations,
is as follows: “Fill the lungs, then hold the breath an instant, and
forcibly contract all the chest muscles. Then force the air out slowly
and powerfully through the glottis.” Practice of this exercise is always
accompanied by a hissing sound, caused by the escape of the air through
the narrow slit between (presumably) the “breath-bands.” Tone-production
by the same muscular action is very simple, and requires no further
explanation.

In its practical aspect this system of breath-control is the direct
opposite of the “opposed muscular” system. In one the breath is expelled
powerfully, the object being to bring a strong expiratory pressure to
bear on the larynx. In the other system, the air is held back, in order
that the larynx be exposed to as slight a pressure as possible.[Pg 32]

The “breath-band” advocates hold that the glottic stroke is the key to
correct laryngeal action. As a rule they instruct their pupils to attack
every tone, throughout all their practising, with the stroke of the
glottis. In the course of time the automatic valvular action is supposed
to become so well established that the singer can dispense with the
glottic stroke in public performance. Needless to say, these teachers
usually recognize that this explosive sound is very harsh and unmusical,
and utterly out of place in artistic singing.

An important claim of the “breath-band” teachers is that their doctrine
contains the explanation of the traditional precept, “Support the tone.”
Their idea is that the throat, being “firmly set,” furnishes a secure
base for the tone to rest on. This explanation is of course utterly
unscientific, and it cannot be said to throw any light on the meaning of
the precept. “Singing on the breath” is also referred to this system of
breath-control, but with no more coherence than the “Support of the
tone.”

No necessary connection obtains between systems of breath-control and
those of breathing strictly speaking, that is, of inspiration. As has[Pg 33]
been said, the great majority of vocal theorists adhere to the “opposed
muscular action” breath-control. In this number are included advocates
of every known system of breathing. Bitter controversies have been
carried on between champions of different modes of breathing, who yet
agree that the breath must be controlled by “opposed action.” This is
also true, although not to the same extent, among the “breath-band”
teachers. And to render the confusion on the subject of breathing and
breath-control complete, instances might be cited of controversies
between teachers who agree as to the correct mode of inspiration, and
yet disagree on the manner of controlling the expiration.

Both systems of breath-control cannot be right; if one is correct, the
other must necessarily be absolutely wrong. Instead of attempting to
decide between them, it will be seen that both are false, and that the
theory on which they rest is erroneous. This discussion is reserved for
a later chapter.[Pg 34]

---

CHAPTER III

REGISTERS AND LARYNGEAL ACTION

Probably no other topic of Vocal Science has been studied so earnestly
as the registers of the voice. Yet on no other topic is there such wide
diversity of opinion among theorists and investigators.

Very little is definitely known regarding the manner in which the
subject of registers was treated by the old Italian masters. Suffice it
to say here that the old masters did not refer the registers to changes
in the laryngeal action. They were treated simply as different qualities
of tone, each quality best adapted to be sung only in a portion of the
voice’s compass.

In the early decades of the nineteenth century the registers of the
voice received much attention from vocal theorists, especially in Paris.
Garcia’s first published work, Mémoire sur la Voix humaine, was
presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1840. This Mémoire gives the
results[Pg 35] of observations which Garcia made on his own pupils; it deals
mainly with the position of the larynx during the singing of tones in
the various registers. Garcia describes how the larynx is raised and
lowered in the throat, according to the register in which the tones are
produced. He also notes the position of the tongue and the soft palate.

Widespread interest was awakened by the account of Garcia’s
laryngoscopic investigations of the registers, published in 1855. The
attention of the great majority of vocalists was at once drawn to the
subject, and the actions of the vocal cords in the different registers
were studied by many prominent physicians and voice specialists.
Exhaustive treatises on the registers have since been published by Mme.
Seiler, Behnke, Curwen, Mills, Battaille, Curtis, Holmes, and by a large
number of other investigators.

All the results of the laryngoscopic investigation of the vocal action
have been disappointing in the extreme. In the first place, no two
observers have obtained exactly the same results. Writing in 1886, Sir
Morell Mackenzie says: “Direct observation with the laryngoscope is, of[Pg 36]
course, the best method at our disposal, but that even its testimony is
far from unexceptionable is obvious from the marvelous differences as to
matters of fact that exist among observers. It is hardly too much to
say that no two of them quite agree as to what is seen.” (The Hygiene
of the Vocal Organs, London, 1886.) Wesley Mills, in his latest work,
endeavors to show a substantial agreement among the best equipped
observers of the registers, but his attempt can hardly be called
convincing. (Voice Production in Singing and Speaking, Philadelphia,
1906.) Opinions on the subject of registers, held by the leading voice
specialists to-day, are fully as divergent as in 1886. Widely different
statements are made by prominent authorities as to the number of
registers, the vocal cord action by which each register is produced, and
the number of notes which each one should properly include.

Another deficiency of the doctrine of registers is even more serious in
its bearing on practical instruction. Not only have all investigators
failed to define exactly what the correct laryngeal action is. Even if
this were determined it would still be necessary to find means for
imparting [Pg 37]command of this correct action to the student of singing.
Knowing how the vocal cords should act does not help the singer in the
least to govern their action. What the vocal student wishes to know is
how to cause the vocal cords to assume the correct position for each
register. On this, the most important topic of mechanical Voice Culture,
Vocal Science has shed no light whatever. A student may hear
descriptions of the laryngeal action, and study the highly interesting
laryngoscopic photographs of the vocal cords, until thoroughly familiar
with the theoretical side of the subject. Even then, the student is no
better able to control the vocal cord action than when profoundly
ignorant of the whole matter.

This deficiency of Vocal Science is frankly recognized by one of the
latest authoritative writers on the subject, Dr. Wesley Mills. On page
173 of his work just quoted, he advises students to hear the great
singers, to note carefully the quality of tone which characterizes
each register, and to imitate these qualities with their own voices.
This advice may almost be described as revolutionary. Vocal theorists
have always assumed that the correct action cannot be acquired[Pg 38] by
imitation. In this advice to rely on the imitative faculty for acquiring
control of the laryngeal action, Dr. Mills abandons the basic principle
of modern methods. Without exception, all instruction in singing is
to-day based on the idea of mechanical tone-production. An entirely new
theory of Voice Culture is involved in this advice of Dr. Mills.

Turning to practical methods of instruction, it is found that the
subject of registers is very seldom treated in the manner suggested by
the theoretical works on the voice. This would be, to make the “placing”
of the voice in the different registers the exclusive subject of
instruction for a certain number of lessons;—to train each register of
the voice separately;—when the correct vocal cord action had been
established in each register, to unite the different registers, and to
correct any “breaks” which might have developed. Comparatively few
teachers attempt to follow this course. The great majority treat the
registers in a much less systematic fashion. A single half-hour lesson
usually includes explanations and exercises on several topics of
mechanical tone-production, as well as hints on agility, style,
[Pg 39]execution, etc. As merely one of this variety of subjects, the
registers usually receive rather desultory attention.

Some teachers profess to ignore the subject of registers entirely. They
maintain that, when properly trained from the beginning, the compass of
the voice is one homogeneous whole; “breaks” and changes of quality are
in their opinion merely the results of bad instruction. But the general
belief of vocal authorities is overwhelmingly against these teachers.
The condition which they describe is without doubt the ideal of vocal
management; but the vast majority of teachers believe that this
condition cannot be attained without some attention being paid to the
individual registers.

Most teachers recognize either two registers,—chest and head; or
three,—chest, middle, and head. Comparatively few extremists recognize
more than three. Several sets of names for the registers have been
proposed by vocal theorists,—thick and thin, long reed and short reed,
high and low, etc. But these names have not been adopted by teachers to
any extent.[Pg 40]

One important phase of the registers has not received much attention
from the laryngoscopic investigators. This is, that most of the notes of
the voice’s compass can be produced at will in more than one register.
Vocal teachers as a rule recognize this fact. Julius Stockhausen for
instance, in his Gesangsmethode (Leipzig, 1884), says: “The registers
cross each other. The two principal registers of the voice have many
tones in common. The perfect blending of the registers on a single tone
leads to the crescendo, called in Italian the messa di voce.”
Teachers generally do not set hard and fast limits to the extent of each
register; they direct that in singing up the scale the student pass
gradually from chest to middle, middle to head voice, etc.

In most practical methods the chest register occupies about the same
position; this is also true of the head register. Even those teachers
who profess to ignore registers recognize these two distinct qualities
of tone; they instruct their pupils to sing low notes in one quality,
and high notes in the other. This is in fact the general practice. In
this connection the topics of registers and resonance are often
combined. The[Pg 41] terms “head voice,” “head register,” and “nasal
resonance,” are used interchangeably by the great majority of teachers.
This is also true of the expressions “chest voice,” “chest resonance,”
and “chest register.”

In practical instruction, the extending of the compass of the voice is
usually treated, rather loosely perhaps in most cases, as a feature of
the registers. Methods vary greatly in points of detail, but in most of
them instruction on this topic is given along the same general lines.
Usually the three classes of voices receive different treatment, one
form of instruction being used for sopranos and tenors, another for
mezzo-sopranos and baritones, and a third for altos and bassos.

In teaching students with high voices, teachers usually “place”[5] the
medium notes first, roughly speaking, from G to d (for male voices one
octave lower). Then the lower notes are developed, mostly by descending
scale passages, the lowest note practised being usually C. The high
notes are sometimes “placed” by ascending scale passages and arpeggios,
but more often by the octave[Pg 42] jump and descending scale. There is room
for considerable variation in this class of exercises, but they all
conform to the same general principle.

For mezzos and baritones about the same system is followed, the
exercises being sung a major third or so lower. In the case of
contraltos and bassos, the voice is usually trained from the middle in
both directions. Most teachers favor the “chest voice” for singers of
these types throughout the entire compass.

A discussion of the use of special vowels and consonants in this class
of exercises is contained in Chapter V.

It must not be understood that this topic of instruction is assigned by
many teachers to any particular period of the student’s progress.
Moreover, practice in the registers seldom forms the exclusive material
of lessons and home study for any definite time. The wide range of
topics considered in the average singing lesson has already been
mentioned.

Very little connection can be traced between the scientific doctrine of
registers, and the treatment which this subject receives in modern
methods.[Pg 43] This is only to be expected, in view of the fact that
laryngoscopic investigation has not resulted in practical rules for
managing the vocal cords. The registers of the voice are handled by
modern teachers in a purely empirical fashion.

Movements of the Larynx, Tongue, and Soft Palate

It was remarked, in speaking of the registers, that no mechanical means
has ever been found for directly controlling the operations of the vocal
cords. To this statement one apparent exception is seen in the method
originated by John Howard. This earnest student of the voice sought to
carry out, to its logical conclusion, the accepted idea of mechanical
vocal control. In this respect he stands practically alone. His is the
only method which even pretends to reduce the entire operation of
correct tone-production to a set of defined muscular contractions.

Howard’s theories, with the details of a practical method based thereon,
are fully described in his most important published work, The
Physiology of Artistic Singing, New York, 1886. A complete exposition
of Howard’s theories is not called[Pg 44] for here. For the present purpose
the following short summary will suffice:

“The difference between correct tone-production and any incorrect vocal
action is solely a matter of laryngeal adjustment and vocal cord action.
Whether the tone produced be right or wrong, the influence of the
resonance cavities is about the same. It is therefore idle to pay any
attention to the subject of air resonance. Only one form of resonance is
of any value in tone-production (considered as distinct from vowel
formation). This is the sounding-board resonance of the bones of the
head and chest. To secure this, the most important reinforcement of the
tone, the larynx must be firmly held in a fixed position against the
backbone, at the fifth cervical vertebra. All theories as to the
registers of the voice, derived from laryngoscopic observation, are
completely erroneous.

“In the production of tone, the muscular tissue of the vocal cords is
thrown into vibration by the air blast, and not merely the membranous
covering of the inner edges of the cords. For a soft tone, only a
portion of the fleshy mass of the vocal cords vibrates; if this tone is
gradually[Pg 45] swelled to fortissimo, a constantly increasing portion of
the muscular tissue is called into play. For the loudest tone, the
entire mass of the vocal cords is bought into vibration. Thus the
increased volume of the tone results not alone from the increase in the
power of the breath blast. Each addition to the power of the expiration
demands also a change in the adjustment of the vocal cords.

“The contractions of the muscles inside the larynx, including the vocal
cords, cannot be brought under direct voluntary control. But these
contractions can be regulated by the actions of other sets of muscles,
viz., those by which the larynx is connected with the skeletal framework
of the head, neck, and chest. These latter muscles can all be controlled
by direct volition. Each of these sets of muscles has its function in
tone-production. One set pulls the larynx backward, into the position
already described, against the backbone. Two other opposed sets hold the
larynx firmly in this position, one set pulling upward, the other
downward. Finally, and most important in their influence on the actions
of the vocal cords, a fourth set of muscles comes into[Pg 46] play. These tilt
the thyroid cartilage forward or backward, and thus bring about a
greater or less tension of the vocal cords, independent of the
contractions of the muscles of the vocal cords themselves. In this way
is regulated the amount of the fleshy mass of the vocal cords exposed to
the expiratory blast. Correct tone-production results when exactly the
necessary degree of strength is exerted by each one of these four sets
of muscles.”

For each of these groups of muscles Howard devised a system of exercises
and drills by which the singer is supposed to bring all the movements
involved under direct voluntary control. The parts thus exercised are
the tongue, the soft palate, the jaw, the fauces, and also the muscles
by which the larynx is raised and lowered in the throat, and those by
which the chest is raised. In teaching a pupil Howard took up each part
in turn. A sufficient number of lessons was devoted to each set of
muscles for the pupil (presumably) to acquire the necessary control of
each group.

Howard also paid much attention to the breath; he worked out the system
of high-chest breathing in a really masterly fashion. But his manner of[Pg 47]
dealing with this subject did not differ from that of a great number of
other teachers.

Howard retired from active teaching about 1895. His theories of the
vocal action have never been generally accepted by vocal theorists, and
the number of teachers who now profess to follow his method is very
small. There are, however, many other masters whose methods, in their
main features, are patterned after Howard’s. These latter teachers may
therefore be justly said to follow the Howard system, even though they
give him no credit for their doctrines of vocal control.

Howard usually insisted that his pupils should understand the
theoretical basis of his method, and the exact purpose of each exercise
and muscular contraction. But as a rule his successors do not make this
demand on their pupils. They are content to have the students practise
the prescribed exercises; this the students do, with very little thought
about the theory lying behind the method. For the pupil this system, as
at present generally taught, consists solely of a series of muscular
drills for the tongue, larynx, palate, etc.

In this review of modern methods, the Howard system is important, mainly
because it represents[Pg 48] the consistent application of the idea of
mechanical tone-production. As was observed, Howard’s theories had very
little influence on the general trend of Vocal Science. The external
features of the Howard system are indeed shared to some extent by the
methods of many other teachers. Muscular drills of about the same type
are very widely used. Some teachers go so far in this respect that their
methods might almost be confounded with the Howard system. But the
resemblance is purely external. Even in 1880, at the time when Howard
had fairly perfected his method, there was nothing novel about exercises
of this type. The first attempts at a practical study of vocal mechanics
consisted of observations of those parts of the vocal organs whose
movements can be readily seen and felt. These are the lips, tongue,
palate, and larynx. Garcia’s Mémoire, already cited, is mainly a
record of observations of this kind. Nearly every vocal theorist since
that time has also paid some attention to this phase of the vocal
action.

In practical methods of instruction, elaborate systems of rules have
long been in use for governing the positions of the tongue, lips,
palate, etc.[Pg 49] Unlike the Howard theory, no definite scientific basis is
usually given for specific directions of this kind. Each investigator
has simply noted how certain great singers held their tongues or soft
palates, whether the larynx was held high or low in the throat, etc.,
and considered that these must be the correct positions. It would be
hard to find a greater diversity of opinion on any topic connected with
the voice than is encountered here. To enumerate all the rules which are
given for governing the actions of each part would be useless. A few of
the contradictory opinions regarding the correct position of the larynx
will suffice to show how great is the confusion on this topic:

“The larynx should be held low in the throat for all tones.” “It should
be held in a fixed position high in the throat.” “It should be high for
low tones, and should descend as the pitch rises.” “It should be in a
low position for the lowest note of each register, and should rise as
the pitch rises; when the highest note of the register is reached, it
should at once descend for the lowest note of the next register.”
Prominent teachers and writers could be cited as authority for each of
these rules, and indeed for several others. A[Pg 50] similar diversity of
opinion is found regarding the rules given for the position of the
tongue and the soft palate.

Practices vary greatly as to the amount of time and attention devoted to
muscular drills of the parts under consideration, and also as to the
importance attached to the positions of these parts. Some teachers make
this a prominent feature of their methods. The majority, however, treat
the subject much more lightly. They now and then devote a part of the
lesson time to the muscular drills and exercises; for the rest, an
occasional hint or correction regarding the positions of the parts is
deemed sufficient.

All the movements of the tongue, lips, and jaw are directly under
voluntary control. Exercises for these parts are therefore given only
for acquiring suppleness and agility. The muscular movements of the
larynx and soft palate are readily brought under control. Each can
simply be raised and lowered. A few minutes’ daily practice, extended
over three or four weeks, is generally sufficient for the student to
acquire satisfactory command of these actions. But to hold the tongue,
palate, and larynx in any prescribed[Pg 51] position, while singing a tone, is
an extremely troublesome matter. Those teachers who adhere to precise
systems for the positions of these parts, frequently impose much arduous
practice on their pupils. As to the merits of any special system of the
kind, this question is reserved for future discussion.

Attack

It would be hard to determine when the term “attack” was first used to
describe the starting of a vocal tone. Nor is it easy to define the
precise position assigned to the subject of attack by vocal theorists.
No satisfactory statement of the theory of attack can be cited from any
published treatise on Vocal Science. It is commonly asserted, rather
loosely indeed, that the tone must be “started right.” As Clara Kathleen
Rogers expresses it, “Attack the tone badly, and nothing can improve it
afterwards.” (The Philosophy of Singing, New York, 1893.) This
statement is in the practical sense utterly unfounded. A tone may be
“attacked” with a nasal or throaty quality, and then be improved, by
simply eliminating the objectionable quality. Of this fact the reader
may readily convince himself. In short, all the[Pg 52] accepted theories of
attack rest on an unscientific basis.

Vocal theorists generally treat the subject of attack as connected in
some way with registers and laryngeal action. But as no rule has ever
been formulated for the mechanical management of the laryngeal action,
it necessarily follows that no intelligible directions are ever given to
the student for preparing to start the laryngeal action correctly.

Three possible ways of attacking a tone are generally recognized. These
are described by Albert B. Bach, in The Principles of Singing, second
edition, London, 1897. They are, first, the stroke of the glottis. (This
is advocated by Garcia in most of his published works, although the
testimony of many of his pupils, notably Mme. Marchesi, is that Garcia
used the glottic stroke very little in actual instruction.) Second, the
aspirate (h as in have), which is generally condemned. Third, the
approximation of the vocal cords at the precise instant the breath blast
strikes them. This latter mode of attack is advocated by Browne and
Behnke, who call it the “slide of the glottis.” It must be observed
that[Pg 53] neither the stroke nor the slide of the glottis can be shown to
have any influence in causing the laryngeal muscles to adopt any
particular mode of adjustment.

Turning to practical methods of instruction, little connection can be
traced between the theories of attack and the occasional directions
usually given for starting the tone. The subject of attack is seldom
assigned to any particular period in the course of study. Many teachers
ignore the matter altogether. Others devote a few minutes now and then
to drilling a pupil in the stroke of the glottis, without attaching much
importance to the subject. (The position assigned to this mode of attack
by the “breath-band” theorists has already been mentioned.) On the
whole, the matter of attack is usually treated rather loosely. The pupil
is occasionally interrupted in singing a phrase, and told to “attack the
tone better.” Needless to say, this form of instruction is in no sense
scientific.[Pg 54]

---

CHAPTER IV

Resonance

In order to understand fully the position in Vocal Science assigned to
the doctrine of resonance, it is necessary to trace the origin and the
development of this doctrine. The old Italian masters naturally knew
nothing whatever of resonance, nor of any other topic of acoustics. Yet
the accepted theories of resonance in its relation to the voice are
directly based on a set of empirical observations made by the old
masters. The facts which they noted are now a matter of common
knowledge. In singing low notes a sensation of trembling or vibration is
felt in the upper chest; high notes are accompanied by a similar
sensation in the head. How these sensations of vibration came to be made
the basis of the theories of vocal resonance, and of registers as well,
is an interesting bit of vocal history.

Although almost entirely ignorant of vocal mechanics in the scientific
sense, the old masters[Pg 55] were eager students of the voice. They carefully
noted the characteristic sound of each tone of the voice, and worked out
what they believed to be a comprehensive theory of tone-production. One
of their observations was that in every voice the low notes have a
somewhat different quality from the high notes. To distinguish these two
qualities of tone the old masters adopted the word used for a similar
purpose by the organ builders,—register. Further, they noted the
sensation of vibration in the chest caused by singing low notes, and
concluded that these notes are actually produced in the chest. To the
lower notes of the voice they therefore gave the name “chest register.”
As Tosi explains it, “Voce di Petto is a full voice, which comes from
the breast by strength.” For a precisely similar reason, viz., the
sensation of vibration in the head felt in singing the higher notes,
this portion of the voice was called by the old masters the “head
register.”

When the study of vocal mechanics along scientific lines was undertaken,
in the early decades of the nineteenth century, attention was at first
paid almost exclusively to the subject of registers. The questions then
most discussed were the number of[Pg 56] registers, the number of notes which
each should include, and the precise point of production of each
register in the chest, throat, and head. Garcia’s Mémoire, dealing
with the registers, was noticed in the preceding chapter. He showed that
different adjustments of the tongue, palate, and larynx are concerned in
the production of the various registers. This Mémoire opened up a new
line of observation, in which Garcia continued to take the lead. But the
extending of the scope of inquiry concerning the registers did not
result in any unanimity of opinion on the part of the vocal
investigators of that time.

For a few years following the invention of the laryngoscope (1855),
vocal theorists ceased their disputes about the registers, and awaited
the definite results of this new mode of observation. When this potent
little instrument was put within the reach of every investigator, it was
believed that the mystery surrounding the registers was about to be
dispelled.

One important consequence of the invention of the laryngoscope was the
turning of attention away from the sensations of vibration in the chest
and head. Each register was ascribed to a [Pg 57]distinct mode of operation of
the vocal cords, and for several years the terms “chest voice” and “head
voice” were held to be scientifically unsound. But with the publication
of Helmholtz’s Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen in 1863, the
sensations of vibration again received attention. These sensations were
then made the basis of a theory of vocal resonance, which has since been
adopted by the great majority of vocal scientists.

Until the publication of Helmholtz’s work vocal theorists had known
practically nothing of acoustics. The fact that the tones produced by
the vocal cords are increased in power and modified in quality by the
resonance of the air in the mouth-pharynx cavity came as a distinct
revelation to the theoretical students of the voice. Helmholtz confined
his experiments and demonstrations to the mouth-pharynx cavity, and
investigated in particular the influence of this cavity in producing the
various vowel and consonant sounds. But vocal theorists at once extended
the idea of air resonance, and connected it with the well-known
sensations of vibration in the chest and head. It was assumed that these
sensations[Pg 58] are caused by vibrations of the air in the chest and nasal
cavities.

This assumption has been accepted without question by the great majority
of vocal scientists. Both the chest voice and the head voice are now
believed to owe their distinctive qualities to the reinforcing
vibrations of the air in the chest and nasal cavities respectively. The
mere fact that these vibrations can be felt is held sufficient proof of
the statement. “In every true chest tone the resonance can be distinctly
felt as a vibration (fremitus pectoralis) by the hand laid flat on the
chest.” (Die Kunst der idealen Tonbildung, Dr. W. Reinecke, Leipzig,
1906.) It must be observed that this is by no means a satisfactory
scientific proof of the doctrine of chest resonance. This feature of the
subject is reserved for discussion later.

The doctrine of resonance is now generally accepted as one of the basic
principles of Vocal Science. It is stated, in substance, by almost every
authority on the voice that “The tone produced by the vibration of the
vocal cords, even when the laryngeal action is correct in every way, is
weak, of poor quality, and without character.[Pg 59] This tone must be
strengthened and made of musical quality by utilizing the influence of
resonance.” The subject of resonance is always treated in theoretical
works on the voice under the three heads of chest, mouth-pharynx, and
nasal resonance. To these a fourth is sometimes added,—the
sounding-board resonance of the bones of the chest and head.

Mouth-Pharynx Resonance

Considered strictly in its bearing on tone-production, the resonance of
the mouth-pharynx cavity does not receive much attention from
theoretical observers of the voice. The form assumed by this cavity is
of necessity determined by the vowel to be sung. Aside from its function
in the pronunciation of words, the influence of mouth-pharynx resonance
on the tones of the voice is seldom discussed by vocal scientists.

As a rule, vocal teachers pay little attention to this form of
resonance. The subject of enunciation is generally treated as distinct
from tone-production strictly speaking. While the correct emission of
the tone, in its passage from the vocal cords to the lips, is considered
a very important[Pg 60] topic, this feature of tone-production has no
reference to resonance.

One exception must be made to the statement that no attention is paid to
mouth-pharynx resonance. This is found in an interpretation of the
empirical precept, “Sing with open throat.” Several vocal theorists take
this precept literally, and hold that it describes a function of
mouth-pharynx resonance. According to their idea the cavity must be
expanded to the largest size possible, on the theory that a large
resonance cavity secures a proportionately greater reinforcement of the
tone. “The greater the size of the pharynx, whether through practice or
natural gifts, the stronger in proportion is the tone.” (Die Kunst der
idealen Tonbildung, Dr. W. Reinecke, Leipzig, 1906.) This theory is of
course rather loose and unscientific. Still this idea,—a literal
interpretation of the “open throat” precept,—receives much attention in
practical instruction.

Only one muscular action has ever been defined by which the throat might
be “opened.” That is, the lowering of the larynx and the raising of the
soft palate. Many teachers therefore direct that the throat be “opened”
gradually in this[Pg 61] way for the swelling of the tone. It is assumed that
the power of the voice is developed by singing with the larynx low in
the throat. This manner of instruction is, however, very loosely given.
The supposedly scientific interpretation of the “open throat” precept
shades off into a purely empirical application.

Chest Resonance

In no other topic of Vocal Science is the gap between theory and
practice more striking than in the doctrine of chest resonance. Vocal
teachers are in fair accord in believing the resonance of the air in the
chest to be the most important influence in imparting power and “color”
to the voice, and particularly to the lower notes of its compass.
Students of singing are in almost all cases urged to acquire a proper
command of chest resonance. But when it comes to telling the student how
to learn to govern the chest resonance, the teacher has practically
nothing to offer. No direct means has ever been found for causing the
air in the thorax to vibrate; this cannot be effected, so far as has yet
been determined, by any voluntary muscular action on the part of the
singer.[Pg 62]

This being the case, intelligible instruction in the use and management
of chest resonance is hardly to be expected. Teachers of singing are
obliged to fall back on purely empirical instruction on this topic. This
usually takes the form of a description of the sensations experienced by
the singer when producing tones in the chest voice. How this description
of the singer’s sensations is applied, is discussed in the following
chapter.

Nasal Resonance

The lack of connection between the theories of vocal scientists and the
practical methods of singing teachers is well illustrated in the subject
of nasal resonance. A striking feature of all the discussions concerning
the use or avoidance of nasal resonance is the fact that vocal theorists
base their opinions entirely on empirical observations. The use of nasal
resonance is condemned by almost every prominent authority on Vocal
Science. Yet the only reason ever advanced for condemning nasal
resonance is the fact that a tone of objectionable nasal quality seems
to “come through the nose.” This fact cannot, of course, be questioned.
It is mentioned[Pg 63] by Tosi, who speaks of the “defect of singing through
the nose,” and is observed by everybody possessed of an ear keen enough
to detect the nasal quality of sound.

It is generally stated by vocal theorists that the nasal quality is
imparted to the tone by the influence of the resonance of the air in the
nasal cavities. In order to prove this assertion Browne and Behnke offer
the following experiment, (quoted in substance): “Hold a hand-mirror
flat, face up, just below the nostrils. Then sing a nasal tone; you will
note that the mirror is clouded, showing that part of the breath has
passed through the nasal cavities. Now sing another tone, free from the
fault of nasal quality; this time the mirror is not clouded, which
proves that no air has passed through the cavities in question.”
(Voice, Song and Speech.) This experiment is simplified by other
authorities, who direct that the nostrils be pinched by the fingers, and
then allowed to open by the removal of the pressure of the fingers. A
steady tone is meanwhile to be sung. It will be noted, according to
these theorists, that with the nostrils open the tone is nasal, and with
the nostrils closed the tone is[Pg 64] not nasal. This proves to their
satisfaction that a tone passing in whole or in part through the nasal
cavities must be nasal in quality.

It must be noted here that these experiments are not in any sense
convincing. A tone of objectionable nasal quality can be sung equally
well with the nostrils either closed or open, and so can a tone free
from the nasal quality.

In theory, the mechanical prevention of nasal resonance is very simple.
It is necessary only to raise the soft palate in singing, and thus to
cut off the expired breath from passing into the nasal cavities. Most
vocal scientists advise that the singer hold the soft palate raised for
every tone.

Practical teachers of singing pay little attention to the theoretical
discussions concerning nasal resonance. The overwhelming majority of
teachers are firm believers in nasal resonance, and make it an important
feature of their methods. They believe that this resonance is the most
important factor in giving to the tone its “point,” brilliance, and
carrying power.

So far as instruction in the use of nasal resonance is concerned,
teachers owe but little to the[Pg 65] mechanical doctrines of Vocal Science.
No voluntary muscular operation has ever been found, by which the air in
the nasal cavities can be directly thrown into vibration, and so made to
reinforce the tones of the voice. Instruction in the management of nasal
resonance is therefore similar to that in chest resonance. The teacher
describes the sensations experienced by a singer who produces the exact
quality of tone desired. Use is also made of special vowels and
consonants, for (supposedly) acquiring command of nasal resonance. A
description of this form of instruction is given in the following
chapter.

Sounding-Board Resonance

The acoustic principle of sounding-board resonance, in its application
to the voice, is discussed by several vocal scientists. It is usually
treated under two heads: first, the entire body is looked upon as a
sounding board, capable of reinforcing the tones of the voice under
certain conditions. Second, the bones of the chest and of the head are
thought to be thrown into vibration, in sympathy with the vibrations of
the air in the chest and nasal cavities respectively.[Pg 66]

The importance attached by Howard to the sounding-board resonance of the
entire body has already been noticed. Aside from the teachers of the
Howard system, very few masters pay any attention to this feature of
vocal reinforcement. Those who do so have no difficulty in dealing with
the subject. When the singer stands in the position generally considered
correct for singing, the body is said to be in the position most
favorable for securing the benefits of this form of resonance. For this
no special rules or exercises are needed.

Very little attention is paid, in practical instruction, to the
vibrations of the bones of the resonance cavities. Each cavity is
treated as a whole; the fact is only occasionally mentioned that the
bones inclosing the cavities may vibrate, as well as the inclosed air.[Pg 67]

---

CHAPTER V

EMPIRICAL MATERIALS OF MODERN METHODS

A series of topics included in modern methods is now to be considered,
different in scope from the strictly mechanical features of
tone-production so far described. It must be apparent to the reader that
the present understanding of the muscular processes of singing is not
sufficient to furnish a complete method of instruction. This fact is
thoroughly appreciated by the teachers of singing. Almost without
exception they seek to supplement the mechanical doctrines by
instruction of an entirely different character. The subjects included in
this form of instruction are of several classes. They comprise the
manner of emission of the tone, the traditional precepts of the old
Italian school, the singer’s sensations, and the use of certain vowels
and consonants for special purposes.[Pg 68]

Emission and Forward Placing

Of all the traditional precepts, the one most frequently cited in
theoretical treatises on the voice is, “Place the tone forward.” For
this precept it is generally believed that a satisfactory explanation
has been found in the accepted doctrine of tone emission.

The characteristic effect of perfect singing known as the “forward tone”
is thoroughly well known to every lover of singing. In some peculiar way
the tone, when perfectly produced, seems to issue directly from the
singer’s mouth. When we listen to a poorly trained and faulty singer the
tones seem to be caught somewhere in the singer’s throat. We feel
instinctively that if the singer could only lift the voice off the
throat, and bring it forward in the mouth, the tones would be greatly
improved in character. It is commonly believed that the old masters knew
some way in which this can be done. Just what means they used for this
purpose is not known. But the accepted scientific interpretation of the
“forward tone” precept is held by vocal theorists to render the subject
perfectly clear.[Pg 69]

Sir Morell Mackenzie states the correct emission of the tone as one of
the three cardinal principles of the vocal action. “The regulation of
the force of the blast which strikes against the vocal cords, the
placing of these in the most favourable position for the effect which it
is desired to produce, and the direction of the vibrating column of air
which issues from the larynx are the three elements of artistic
production.” (The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs, London, 1886.) His
analysis of the mechanical and acoustic processes involved in emission
may be cited as typical of the views of the great majority of vocal
scientists. “It (the column of sound) must be projected against the roof
of the cavity behind the upper front teeth, from which it rebounds
sharply and clearly to the outside.” Mme. Seiler expresses the idea
somewhat differently, but the meaning is about the same. “A correct
disposition of the tones of the voice consists in causing the air,
brought into vibration by the vocal ligaments, to rebound from
immediately above the front teeth, where it must be concentrated as much
as possible, rebounding thence to form in the mouth continuous
vibrations.” (The Voice in Singing, Phila., 1886.)[Pg 70]

To the vocal theorists this is no doubt thoroughly convincing and
satisfactory. But as a topic of practical instruction in singing this
theory of tone emission is utterly valueless. How can the “column of
vocalized breath” be voluntarily directed in its passage through the
pharynx and mouth? No muscular process has ever been located, by which
the singer can influence the course of the expired breath, and direct it
to any specific point in the mouth. Even if the expired breath does, in
perfect singing, take the course described, knowledge of this fact
cannot enable the singer to bring this about. The accepted doctrine of
tone emission is of no benefit whatever to the teacher of singing. He
knows what the “forward tone” is, that is, what it sounds like, just as
well no doubt as did the old Italian master. But if the latter knew how
to enable his pupils to obtain the “forward” character of tone, the
modern teacher is to that extent not so well off.

In view of the prevailing ignorance of any means for securing the
(supposedly) correct emission of tone, intelligible instruction on this
topic is hardly to be expected. But the great[Pg 71] majority of teachers lay
great stress on the need of acquiring the correct emission. The best
they can do is to explain the scientific doctrine to their pupils; the
students are generally left to find for themselves some way of applying
the explanation. In many cases the master tries to assist the student by
describing the singer’s sensations, experienced when producing a
“forward” tone.

Certain vowels and consonants are usually held to be especially favored
by a “forward position,” and exercises on these are very widely used for
securing a “forward” tone. These exercises are described in a later
paragraph. It will be noticed however that this use of vowels is not an
application of the theory of “forward emission.” The vowel sounds are
believed to owe their “forward position” to resonance, while “emission”
is purely a matter of direction or focusing of the breath-blast. The
whole subject of emission and forward placing is in a very
unsatisfactory condition.

The Traditional Precepts in Modern Instruction

So much importance is attached by modern teachers to the traditional
precepts of the old[Pg 72] school that this subject calls for somewhat lengthy
treatment. Before discussing the manner in which the precepts are
applied in practical instruction, it will be well to review first the
interpretations of the precepts offered by different vocal scientists.

It must be remarked, in the first place, that no single one of the
precepts has ever been satisfactorily explained; that is, no direct
means of performing the actions indicated by the precepts has ever been
found. If ever the precepts had a definite meaning, considered as
specific directions for performing certain actions in a special way,
that meaning has been lost. Mechanical analysis has not reduced the
precepts to a form in which they are of direct value to the modern
teacher.

That the “forward tone” is interpreted as a reference to the emission of
the voice was noted earlier in this chapter. The explanation of the
“open throat” precept as a function of mouth-pharynx resonance has also
been mentioned.

“Singing on the breath” is a very perplexing subject for vocal
theorists. Many authorities assert that this precept describes an
effect[Pg 73] obtained by the “opposed muscular action” breath-control. (See
citation from Shakespeare in Chapter II.) But this explanation is hardly
satisfactory; if the precept had meant no more than breath-control, it
would have been forgotten long ago.

The “support of the tone” is mentioned by a large number of theoretical
writers on the voice. These writers generally state, in substance, that
“the tone must be supported by the breathing muscles of the chest, and
not by the throat muscles.” (See The Technics of Bel Canto, by G. B.
Lamperti, New York, 1905.) But this explanation is hardly to be
considered as a scientific doctrine. Every one knows that a tone has no
weight, so in the physical sense it can need no support. In short,
scientific analysis has thrown no more light on this than any other of
the old precepts.

Notwithstanding the modern teacher’s complete ignorance of the
mechanical operations which they seem to indicate, the old precepts form
a very important feature of instruction in singing. The great majority
of teachers cite these precepts constantly, and frequently direct[Pg 74] their
pupils to “open the throat,” to “bring the tone forward,” etc. Is it to
be believed that an intelligent master would use these directions in any
occult or cabalistic sense? Such a statement is occasionally made by a
consistent upholder of the mechanical system of Voice Culture. Paulo
Guetta, for example, in a recent exhaustive work on the subject,
ridicules the use of the old precepts. Says this ardent advocate of
mechanical instruction in singing:

“Nowadays alchemy and necromancy awaken nothing but curiosity. How then
can one who thinks and reasons admit that an art can be cultivated and
sustained by theories extravagant, fantastic, enigmatic, explained and
condensed in abstruse phrases and sentences, which not only have no
meaning whatever, but even lead one to doubt whether the teacher himself
knows what result it is desired to obtain? Do you wish a little example?
Behold!

“‘Press the whole voice against the mask.’ ‘Place the voice in the
head.’ ‘The voice is directed to the nasal cavities.’ ‘Place the voice
forward.’[Pg 75]

“Others, with the most austere gravity, will tell you that your voice is
too far back, or that you send the voice to the lower teeth, and promise
in a few days to place the voice forward, at the upper teeth, or
wherever else it should be.” (Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo, Milan,
1902.)

This statement is by no means justified. The precepts have a real and
definite meaning for the vocal teacher. Any one familiar with the
highest type of artistic singing must have observed that the singer’s
“throat seems to be open”; the tones impress the hearer as being in some
way “forward in the singer’s mouth,” and not at the vocal cords; the
voice “seems to be supported” somewhere; the tones float out freely on
the breath. A harsh and badly produced voice seems to be held in the
singer’s throat by main force. The critical hearer feels instinctively
that such a singer’s voice would be greatly improved if the tones could
only be supported in a forward position in the mouth, and kept from
slipping back into the throat. It seems that this would relieve the
throat of the strain of holding the tone; the throat would then be open,
and the voice would float out freely on the breath.[Pg 76]

In short, the traditional precepts describe accurately the most striking
points of difference between perfect singing and bad singing, so far as
the effect on the listener is concerned. Modern teachers are thoroughly
familiar with the highest standards of the vocal art; they fully
appreciate how well the precepts describe the perfection of singing.
Through long continued listening to voices, the precepts come to have a
very real meaning. It is inevitable therefore that the teacher should
try to impart to the pupil this intimate feeling for the voice. True,
this acquaintance with the voice is purely empirical; as has just been
remarked, no mechanical analysis of this empirical knowledge has ever
been successfully made. The modern teacher’s apprehension of the meaning
of the precepts is only very vaguely connected with a supposed insight
into the mechanical processes of tone-production.

Yet there is nothing vague about the impression made on the teacher in
listening to his pupils. On the contrary, every faulty tone impresses
the teacher very keenly and definitely as being too far back, or as
caught in the throat, or as falling back for lack of support, etc. How[Pg 77]
could it be expected then, that the teacher should refrain from telling
the pupil to correct the faulty production, in the manner so clearly and
directly indicated by the tones?

But this direct application of the precepts is of absolutely no value in
instruction, because of the teacher’s ignorance of the mechanical
processes supposedly involved. There is after all some justification for
Guetta’s criticism of empirical instruction. It is all very well for the
teacher to feel that the pupil’s voice is gripped in the throat, and to
bid him “open your throat.” The pupil may strive ever so earnestly to
open his throat, but he does not know how, and the teacher is utterly
unable to tell him.

All instruction based on the empirical precepts is thus seen to be
extremely unsatisfactory. While the precepts convey a very valuable
meaning to the teacher, no way has ever been found for translating this
meaning into rules for the mechanical management of the vocal organs.
Recourse is had, to some extent, to a description of the singer’s
sensations; exercises on special vowels and consonants are also much
used, for imparting the ideas embodied in the precepts. Both of these
topics are now to be considered.[Pg 78]

The Singer’s Sensations

The correct use of the voice awakens in the singer a variety of
sensations generally held to be different from those accompanying any
incorrect vocal action.

One important fact must first be noted regarding the manner in which the
singer’s sensations are described by various authorities. The use of the
voice awakens a wide variety of local sensations, which bear no
necessary relation to each other. A singer may, at will, pay entire
attention to any one, or to any particular set, of these sensations, and
for the time being completely ignore all the others.

Physiologically considered, the singer’s sensations are of two
classes,—first, muscular sensations strictly speaking; and second, a
sense of tingling or vibration, definitely located usually about the
breast bone, and in the front and upper part of the head.

Muscular Sensations of Singing

It is very difficult to analyze and describe exactly the muscular
sensations which accompany any complex action. Swimming, diving,
dancing,[Pg 79] skating,—each awakens a set of extremely vivid muscular
feelings; yet to describe these sensations so graphically that they
could be felt in imagination by one who had never experienced them
actually,—that would be almost impossible.

This peculiar aspect of muscular sensations is particularly true as
regards the action of singing. While every vocal teacher knows exactly
how it feels to sing properly, all descriptions of the singer’s muscular
sensations are extremely vague. But the vividness of these sensations
keeps them constantly before the teacher’s mind, and some application of
them, in the present state of Voice Culture, is almost inevitable.

The basic sensation of correct singing, as generally described, is a
feeling of perfect poise and harmony of the whole body; this is
accompanied by a sense of freedom about the throat and jaw, and firm
grasp and control of the expiratory muscles. Attempts are frequently
made to amplify this description, but the results are always very vague.
A feeling of “absence of local effort” at the throat is much spoken of,
or “perfect relaxation of the vocal muscles.”[Pg 80]

A few specially localized muscular sensations are also much discussed.
Descriptions of this class however are often so loosely given as to
render a definite statement almost impossible. Most frequently mentioned
are the feeling of “backward pressure in the throat,” and of “drinking
in the tone,” instead of sending it out. Then again, the “tone must be
felt at the upper front teeth.” A feeling as of an “expanded and
flexible vocal tube, extending from the base of the lungs to the lips,”
is also much talked of. “Feel that you grow bigger as the tone swells”
is about as intelligible as the feeling of “floating jaw.”

On the whole, the subject of the singer’s muscular sensations is usually
rather mystifying to the student.

Sensations of Tingling or Vibration

Descriptions of sensations of this class are much more coherent than
those just considered. A definite location is given to the feelings, in
the chest and in the head.

A feeling of trembling in the upper chest is usually held to indicate
that the chest cavity is[Pg 81] working properly as a resonator. This
sensation is therefore the chief reliance of most teachers in “placing”
the lower tones, especially for low voices. Sensations in the nasal
cavities and head are utilized for acquiring control of nasal resonance,
for placing the upper notes of the voice, and for “bringing the voice
forward.” Exercises for control of both cavities, on special vowels and
consonants, combine the two topics, “vowel position” and sensation.

Singing in the Mask

In recent years a method of instruction has been developed in France,
which is commonly called by its advocates “singing in the mask.” The
basic idea of this method is that the singer must imagine his face to be
covered by a mask, and must “sing into this mask.” This idea may seem
rather vague at first; but a few trials will show how easy it is for the
singer to persuade himself that he projects his voice into his face.

This method goes to the extreme in utilizing the sensations of vibration
in the nose and forehead. These sensations are analyzed, localized, and
described, down to the most minute detail.[Pg 82] While other topics of
instruction are included,—breathing, registers, position of tongue,
larynx, palate, etc., everything else is subordinated to nasal
resonance. “Singing in the mask” is of course a purely empirical method,
and little has been attempted in the way of justifying it on scientific
principles.

All instruction based on the singer’s sensations is purely empirical, in
the meaning ordinarily attached to this word in treatises on Vocal
Science. Theoretical works on the voice seldom touch on the subject of
sensations, nor do the vocal teachers generally make this subject
prominent when speaking of their methods.[6]

Sensations occupy a rather peculiar position in modern methods. They are
a distinctly subsidiary element of instruction and are seldom raised to
the dignity accorded to the mechanical doctrines of vocal management.
The use of the singer’s sensations, as applied in practical instruction,
is almost exclusively interpretive. In[Pg 83] the mechanical sense the
traditional precepts have no meaning whatever; this is also true of
several of the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science. For example, the
precept “Support the tone,” is absolutely meaningless as a principle of
mechanical vocal action. But, when interpreted as referring to a set of
sensations experienced by the singer, this precept takes on a very
definite meaning. Nobody knows what the support of the tone is, but
every vocal teacher knows how it feels. In the same way, no means is
known for directly throwing the air in the nasal cavities into
vibration. But the sensation in the front of the head, which indicates,
presumably, the proper action of nasal resonance, is familiar to all
teachers. Most of the positive materials of modern methods are thus
interpreted in terms of sensations.

True, the accepted theory of Vocal Science does not directly countenance
this interpretation. The basic principle of modern Voice Culture is the
idea of mechanical vocal management. All instruction is supposed to aim
at direct, conscious, and voluntary control of the muscular operations
of singing. Teachers always impart to[Pg 84] their pupils this idea of the
mechanical control of the voice. The vocal action is always considered
from the mechanical side. Even those expressions whose mechanical
meaning is vague or unscientific are yet used as referring definitely to
muscular actions. The conscious thought of the teacher is always turned
to the mechanical idea supposedly conveyed by scientific doctrine and
empirical precept. The translation of this idea into a description of
sensations is almost always the result of a sub-conscious mental
process.

It therefore follows that in practical instruction the appeal to
sensations is more often indirect than direct. For example, when a
student’s tones are caught in the throat, the master says
explicitly,—”Free the tone by opening your throat.” The master explains
the (supposed) wrong vocal action, and describes how the tone should be
produced. Incidentally, the master may also tell how and where the tone
should be felt.

There is also a great deal of instruction based frankly and directly on
the singer’s sensations. Instruction of this type usually takes the form
of special exercises on certain vowels and [Pg 85]consonants, which are
believed to be peculiarly suited for imparting command of particular
features of the correct vocal action. The topics generally covered are
chest resonance, nasal resonance, open throat, and forward placing of
the tone. This form of instruction is held to be referable in some way
to scientific principles. The laws of vowel and consonant formation
formulated by Helmholtz are often cited in proof of the efficacy of
exercises of this type. There is also much discussion of the “location”
of the tone. But there is little justification for the statement that
instruction based on the singer’s sensations is scientific in character.
A misconception of acoustic principles is evidenced by most of the
statements made concerning the use of special vowels and consonants in
securing the correct vocal action. The exercises which aim to utilize
the singer’s sensations in producing particular vowels and consonants
are now to be described.

Exercises on Special Vowels and Consonants

Of the rules concerning the use of special vowels, probably the most
important is that a (as in far) is the most favorable vowel for the
general[Pg 86] purposes of voice training. Teachers generally have their
pupils sing most of their exercises on this vowel. Much attention is
paid to the exact pronunciation of the vowel, and fine distinctions are
drawn between its various sounds in Italian, French, German, and
English. The preference for the Italian pronunciation is very general.
It is claimed for this sound that it helps materially in acquiring
command of the “open throat.” Indeed, a peculiar virtue in this regard
is ascribed to the Italian vowels generally. No convincing reason has
ever been given for this belief. But the usual custom is to “place the
voice” on the Italian a, and then to take up, one at a time, the other
Italian vowels.

The labial consonants, p, b, t, d, are believed to have a
peculiar influence in securing the “forward position” of the tone. Much
the same influence is also ascribed to the vowel oo, although many
authorities consider i (Italian) the “most forward” vowel. Exercises
combining these consonants and vowels are very widely used, on single
tones, and on groups of three, four, or five notes. The syllables boo,
poo, too, doo are practised, or if the teacher hold to the other
“forward”[Pg 87] vowel, bee, pee, tee, dee; the student is instructed
to hold the vowel in the “forward position” secured by the initial
consonant. Later on, the “forward” vowel is gradually widened into the
other vowels; exercises are sung on boo-ah, doo-ah, etc. This form
of instruction is capable of great elaboration. Many teachers use a wide
variety of combinations of these vowels and consonants; but as the basic
idea is always the same, this class of exercises calls for no further
description. The singer’s sensations, notably those of “open throat,”
“expanded vocal tube,” “forward tone,” and vibration in the chest, are
generally brought to the pupil’s attention in this form of exercise.

Another set of sounds are held to be specially adapted for securing the
use of nasal resonance. These are the letters m, n, and ng, when
used for starting a tone, and also the vowel i (Italian). The
exercises used are similar in character to those just described. In
singing these exercises, the student is supposed to “start the tone high
up in the head on the initial m or n, and to hold it there, while
gradually and smoothly opening the mouth for the vowel,” etc. The
sensations [Pg 88]specially noticed in this type of exercise are the feelings
of vibration in the nose and forehead. The “forward tone,” as well as
the nasal resonance, is supposed to be favored by the practice of these
exercises.

Enunciation

Vocal teachers always recognize the importance of a clear delivery of
the text in singing. Correct enunciation is therefore considered in all
methods. A few teachers believe that a clear pronunciation helps greatly
to establish the correct vocal action. Some even go so far as to say
that a clear delivery of the words will of itself insure a correct
tone-production. But this theory calls for only passing comment. One has
but to turn to the vaudeville stage to see its falsity. For singers of
that class, the words are of the utmost importance, while the
tone-production is usually of the very worst.

A few teachers base their methods on the theory that correct
tone-production results necessarily from the singing of “pure vowels.”
This is no doubt interesting, but still far from convincing. The problem
of tone-production is not solved quite so simply.[Pg 89]

As a rule, vocal teachers consider the subject of pronunciation as quite
distinct from tone-production. Methods differ with regard to the use of
exercises in articulation, and to the stage of progress at which these
exercises are taken up. Some teachers insist on their pupils practising
singing for months on the vowels, before permitting them to sing even
the simplest songs with words. Others have the pupils sing words from
the beginning of instruction. As a rule, teachers begin to give songs,
and vocalises with words, very early in the course.

Throat Stiffness and Relaxing Exercises

Teachers of singing generally recognize that any stiffening of the
throat interferes with the correct action of the voice. Yet for some
strange reason vocal students are very much inclined to form habits of
throat stiffness. This constantly happens, in spite of the fact that
teachers continually warn their pupils against the tendency to stiffen.
On this account, exercises for relaxing the throat are an important
feature of modern instruction in singing.

Naturally, relaxing exercises are not thought to[Pg 90] have any direct
bearing in bringing about the correct vocal action. They are purely
preparatory; their purpose is only to bring the vocal organs into the
right condition for constructive training. For this reason, the means
used for relaxing the throat are seldom mentioned among the materials of
instruction. But almost every vocal teacher is obliged to make frequent
use of throat relaxing exercises. Indeed, throat stiffness is one of the
most serious difficulties of modern Voice Culture. A student frequently
seems to be making good progress, and then without much warning falls
into a condition of throat stiffness so serious as to undo for a time
the good work of several months’ study. In such a case there is nothing
for the teacher to do but to drop the progressive work, and devote a few
lessons to relaxing exercises.

Little difficulty is usually found in relaxing the throat, when once the
necessity becomes strikingly apparent. That is, provided progressive
study is dropped for a time, and attention paid solely to relaxing
exercises. But such cases are comparatively rare. A much more constant
source of trouble is found in the prevailing tendency of[Pg 91] vocal students
to stiffen their throats, just enough to interfere with the (supposed)
application of the teacher’s method.

The exercises used for relaxing the throat are fairly simple, both in
character and scope. They consist mainly of toneless yawning, of single
tones “yawned out” on a free exhalation, and of descending scale
passages of the same type. Although seldom recognized as a coördinate
topic of instruction, exercises of this character are usually
interspersed among the other materials of vocal methods.[Pg 92]

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CHAPTER VI

A GENERAL VIEW OF MODERN VOICE CULTURE

All the materials of modern methods have now been described. The subject
next to be considered is the manner in which these materials are
utilized in practical instruction. In other words, what is a method of
Voice Culture?

In the present state of Vocal Science, the subject of tone-production
overshadows everything else in difficulty. When once the correct vocal
action has been acquired, the student’s progress is assured. Every other
feature of the singer’s education is simply a matter of time and
application. But, under present conditions, the acquirement of the
correct vocal action is extremely uncertain. On account of its
fundamental importance, and more especially of its difficulty, the
subject of tone-production is the most prominent topic of instruction in
singing. The term “method” is therefore applied solely to the means used
for imparting the correct vocal action.[Pg 93]

This use of the word is in accordance with the accepted theory of Voice
Culture. The general belief is that tone-production is entirely distinct
from vocal technique. Technical studies cannot profitably be undertaken,
according to the prevailing idea, until the correct management of the
vocal organs has been established. This idea is supposed to be followed
out in modern instruction. It is generally assumed that the voice is
brought under control through a definite series of exercises; these
exercises are supposed to follow, one after the other, according to a
well-defined system. The term “method” implies this systematic
arrangement of exercises. It indicates that vocal training is a matter
of precise knowledge and orderly progression.

This represents the accepted ideal of Voice Culture, rather than the
actual condition. The idea that the vocal management should be imparted
specially, as something preliminary to the technical training of the
voice, is not carried out in practice. Teachers generally are striving
to bring their systems into conformity with this ideal standard. They
use the expression, “placing the voice,” to describe the preliminary[Pg 94]
training in tone-production. But no successful system of this type has
ever been evolved. The correct management of the voice never is imparted
in the manner indicated by this ideal of instruction. Tone-production
continues, throughout the entire course of study, to be the most
important topic of instruction.

In order to understand the nature of a method of Voice Culture, it is
necessary first to consider the relation which exists, in modern
instruction, between training in tone-production, and the development of
vocal technique. According to the accepted theory, the voice must be
“placed” before the real study of singing is undertaken. After the voice
has been properly “placed,” it is supposed to be in condition to be
developed by practice in singing technical exercises. But in actual
practice this distinction between “voice-placing” exercises and
technical studies is seldom drawn. The voice is trained, almost from the
beginning of the course of study, by practice in actual singing. The
earliest exercises used for “placing the voice” are in every respect
technical studies,—single tones and syllables, scale passages,
arpeggios, etc. It is impossible to produce[Pg 95] even a single tone without
embodying some feature of technique. Practice therefore serves a double
purpose; it brings the voice gradually to the condition of perfect
action, and at the same time it develops the technique. The student
advances gradually toward the correct manner of tone-production, and
this progress is evidenced solely by the improved technical use of the
voice. Considerable technical facility is attained before the
tone-production becomes absolutely perfect.

A vocal student’s practice in singing is not confined to technical
exercises, strictly speaking. Vocalises, songs, and arias are taken up,
usually very early in the course of study. Moreover, attention is nearly
always paid to musical expression and to artistic rendition, as well as
to the vocal action and the technical use of the voice. This is true,
whether the student sings an exercise, a vocalise, a song, or an aria.

For daily home practice, the student sings, usually, first some
exercises, then a few vocalises, and finally several songs and arias.
Every teacher has at command a wide range of compositions of all these
kinds, carefully graded as to technical and musical difficulty. As the
pupil[Pg 96] advances, more and more difficult works are undertaken. For each
stage of advancement the teacher chooses the compositions best adapted
to carry the student’s progress still further.

There is no point in this development at which instruction in
tone-production ceases, and the technical training of the voice is
begun. On the contrary, the means used for imparting the correct vocal
action are interspersed with the other materials of instruction, both
technical and artistic, throughout the entire course of study. Moreover,
the training in tone-production is carried on during the singing of the
compositions just described, as well as by practice on “voice-placing”
exercises strictly speaking.

A method of instruction in singing therefore consists primarily of a set
of mechanical rules and directions for managing the voice, and
secondarily of a series of exercises, both toneless and vocal, so
designed that the student may directly apply in practising them the
rules and directions for vocal management. It must not be understood
however that the mechanical rules are applied only to the exercises
specially designed for this purpose. These rules and directions are[Pg 97]
also intended to be applied to everything the student sings,—exercises,
technical studies, and musical compositions.

It will be recalled that the review of the topics of modern vocal
instruction covered three distinct types of materials. First, the purely
mechanical doctrines, commonly regarded as the only strictly scientific
principles of Voice Culture. These are, the rules for the management of
the breath, of the registers, of laryngeal action, and of the resonance
cavities, and also the directions for attacking the tone, and for
forward emission. The second class of materials is held by strict
adherents of the scientific idea to be purely empirical; this class
includes the traditional precepts of the old Italian school, and also
all the topics of instruction based on the singer’s sensations. A third
class of materials is found in the attempts to interpret the empirical
doctrines in the light of the scientific analysis of the vocal action.

To enumerate and classify all the methods of instruction in vogue would
be almost an impossibility. Absolutely no uniformity can be found on any
topic. Even among the accepted doctrines[Pg 98] of Vocal Science there are
many controverted points. Five distinct schools of breathing are
represented, two of breath-control. Of well worked-out systems of
registers, at least twenty could be enumerated. Fully this number of
theories are offered regarding the correct positions of the larynx, soft
palate, and tongue. Two opposed theories are held as to nasal resonance.
Further, the empirical doctrines are always stated so loosely that no
real unanimity of view can be found on any one of them.

Every vocal teacher selects the materials of instruction from these
controverted doctrines, but neither rule nor reason determines what
materials shall be embodied in any one method. There is no coherence
whatever in the matter. Further, there is no agreement as to which
topics of instruction are most important. One teacher may emphasize
breath-control and support of tone as the foundations of the correct
vocal action, another may give this position to nasal resonance and
forward placing. Yet both these teachers may include in their methods
about the same topics. The methods seem entirely different, only because
each makes some one or two doctrines the[Pg 99] most important. In short, it
might almost be said that there are as many methods as teachers.

Three fairly distinct types of method may be defined, depending on the
class of materials adopted. At one extreme are found those teachers who
attempt to follow strictly the scientific principles. These teachers
generally profess to employ only the purely mechanical doctrines of
Vocal Science, and to ignore all empirical interpretations of these
doctrines. They generally devote a portion of every lesson to toneless
muscular drills, and insist that their pupils practise every exercise in
singing, with special attention to the throat action. These teachers
attempt to follow a definite plan and order in the giving of exercises
and rules. This systematic arrangement of instruction is, however,
seldom followed out consistently with any one student. An important
reason for this is considered in Chapter I of Part II.

A very different type of method is taught by many teachers who pay
special attention to the empirical topics of instruction. Of course no
teacher professes to teach empirically; on the contrary, every method is
called scientific, no[Pg 100] matter what materials it embodies. Indeed, a very
little attention paid to breathing, attack, registers, and nasal
resonance, is enough to relieve any teacher of the reproach of
empiricism. The teachers now being considered touch to some extent on
these topics; but most of their instruction is based on the traditional
precepts, the singer’s sensations, and the special vowel and consonant
drills. In the first few lessons of the course they usually give some
special breathing exercises, but almost always ignore breath-control.
Not much is done for vocal control in the strictly muscular sense.
Special “voice-placing” exercises are not used to any such extent as in
the strictly scientific methods just described, the voice-placing work
being usually done on vocalises, songs, and arias. No system whatever is
followed, or even attempted, in the sequence of topics touched upon. The
directions, “Breathe deeper on that phrase,” “Bring that tone more
forward,” “Open your throat for that ah,” “Feel that tone higher up in
the head,” may follow one after the other within five minutes of
instruction.

Teachers of this type are frequently charged, by the strict advocates of
mechanical instruction,[Pg 101] with a practice commonly known as “wearing the
voice into place.” This expression is used to indicate the total
abandonment of system in imparting the correct vocal action. It means
that the teacher simply has the pupil sing at random, trusting to
chance, or to some vague intuitive process, to bring about the correct
use of the voice. To the vocal scientist, “wearing the voice into place”
represents the depth of empiricism.

The great majority of teachers occupy a middle ground between the two
types just described. Teachers of this class touch, more or less, on
every topic of instruction, mechanical, empirical, and interpretive.
Their application of most of the topics of instruction is not quite so
mechanical as in the first type of method considered. The student’s
attention is always directed to the vocal organs, but the idea of direct
muscular control is not so consistently put forward. As a rule, the
attempt is made in the first stages of instruction to follow a
systematic plan. Breathing, and perhaps breath-control, are first taught
as muscular drills, and then applied on single tones. Attack is
generally taken up next, then simple exercises in the medium register.
Following this, the chest[Pg 102] and head registers are placed, and the
attention is turned to emission and resonance. But in most cases, when
the pupil has covered three or four terms of twenty lessons each, all
system is abandoned. The method from that time on is about of the type
described as empirical.

It must be remembered that this classification of methods is at best
very crude. It would not be easy to pick out any one teacher who adheres
consistently to any of the three forms of instruction described. All
that can be said is that a teacher usually tends somewhat more to one
type than to another.

Further, the degree of prominence given to the idea of direct mechanical
control of the voice does not classify a method quite satisfactorily.
Without exception every teacher adheres to the prevailing idea, that the
voice must be controlled and guided in some direct way,—that the singer
“must do something” to cause the vocal organs to operate properly. All
the materials of instruction, mechanical and empirical, are utilized for
the sole purpose of enabling the student to learn how to “do this
something.”

Several names are used by teachers to describe[Pg 103] their methods. One
professes to teach a “natural method,” another the “pure Italian school
of Bel Canto,” a third the “old Italian method as illustrated by Vocal
Science,” a fourth the “strict scientific system of Voice Culture.” No
attention need be paid to these expressions, as they are seldom accurate
descriptions.

Vocal lessons are usually of thirty minutes’ duration. Each student
generally takes two such lessons every week, although in some cases
three, four, or even more are taken. A description of a few typical
lessons will show how the materials of instruction are practically
utilized.

Example 1: The student takes a few preliminary toneless breaths. Then
follow, in the order given, a few short tones for practice on attack,
some sustained tones on the vowel ah, exercises on three, four, and
five notes, ascending and descending, a single tone followed by the
octave jump up and descending scale, this last rising by semitones
through several keys. In these exercises the student’s attention is
directed at random to the correct use of the registers, to nasal
resonance, forward emission, etc. This consumes ten or twelve minutes of
the lesson time.[Pg 104] More elaborate exercises on scale passages are then
sung, lasting another five minutes. These are followed by a vocalise or
two, and a couple of songs or arias, which fill out the thirty minutes.

Example 2: A few breathing exercises are practised, followed by single
tones and short scale passages, the whole lasting about five minutes.
Then the student is drilled for some ten minutes on “placing the head
tones,” in the manner described in the section on special vowel and
consonant drills. These exercises are varied by swelling the high tone,
by changing the vowels, and by elaborating the descending scale
passages. The remaining fifteen minutes are devoted to vocalises and
songs.

Example 3: This is an advanced pupil, whose voice is supposed to be
fairly well “placed.” Technical exercises of some difficulty are sung,
covering a range of an octave and a half, or a little more. The teacher
interrupts occasionally to say “Sing those lower notes more in the chest
voice,” “Place the upper notes higher in the head,” “Don’t let your
vocal cords open on that ah,” “Sing that again and make the tones
cleaner,” etc. One or two arias are then sung,[Pg 105] interspersed with
instructions of the same sort, and also with suggestions regarding
style, delivery, and expression.

For daily practice between lessons, the student sings usually the same
exercises and studies included in the previous lesson, and also commits
to memory compositions assigned for future study.

Examples of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely, but the main
points have been fairly well brought out. Most important to be noticed
is the fact that the voice is trained by practice in actual singing. In
the whole scheme of modern Voice Culture, toneless muscular drills
consume only an insignificant proportion of the time devoted to lessons.
Further, the number of exercises and musical compositions embraced in a
single half-hour lesson is very small. On the other hand, no limit can
be set to the number of topics of vocal control touched on in any one
lesson. These latter are used, throughout the whole range of
instruction, without any systematic sequence. Whatever fault of
production the pupil’s tones indicate, the teacher calls attention to
the fault, and gives the supposedly appropriate rule for its
correction.[Pg 106]

[Pg 107]

[Pg 108]

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