Part III
THE BASIS OF A REAL SCIENCE OF VOICE
CHAPTER I
THE MEANS OF EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION OF THE VOICE
To all knowledge obtained through the observation of facts and
phenomena, the term empirical is properly applied. Empirical knowledge
must be the basis of every science. To be available in forming a
science, empirical knowledge of a subject must be so carefully gathered
that all probability of error is eliminated; the observations must be so
exhaustive as to embrace every possible source of information. From the
knowledge thus obtained a set of verified general rules must be worked
out with which all the observed facts and phenomena are shown to be in
accord. Then a science has been erected. There is no possibility of
conflict between empirical and scientific knowledge. The discovery of a
single fact, at variance with the supposed general laws bearing on any
subject, is sufficient to overthrow the entire structure which had been
accepted as a science.[Pg 152]
In the accepted Vocal Science the terms empirical and scientific are
used in a sense entirely different from that which properly attaches to
these words. Present knowledge of the operations of the voice is called
scientific, solely because it is derived from the sciences of anatomy,
acoustics, and mechanics. The term “empirical knowledge of the voice” is
used as a name for knowledge of the subject drawn from any source other
than these sciences. Yet so far as the modern vocal world seems to be
aware, it possesses no knowledge of the voice other than that commonly
called scientific. It is supposed that the old Italian masters had some
“empirical understanding of the voice.” But, if this was the case, their
empirical knowledge has apparently been utterly lost.
Thus far in the present work, the usage of the terms empirical and
scientific, accepted by vocal theorists generally, has been adopted. A
distinction has been drawn between knowledge of the voice obtained
through the study of the vocal mechanism and that obtained through
observation of any other kind. The purpose will best be served by
continuing this same usage.[Pg 153]
It must be apparent to the reader, from the analysis of modern methods,
that no real Science of Voice has thus far been erected. This is due to
the fact that the general principles of scientific investigation have
not been applied to the study of the voice. Under the influence of the
idea of mechanical vocal management the attention of all investigators
has been turned exclusively to the mechanical features of
tone-production. Meanwhile the empirical knowledge of the old masters
seems to have been forgotten. As a matter of fact, as will now be seen,
this empirical knowledge has never been lost. Every modern teacher of
singing shares the empirical knowledge which formed the sole material of
the old method. But this knowledge is not applied effectually in modern
instruction for two reasons. First, modern teachers do not realize the
importance of this knowledge; indeed, they are practically unaware of
this valuable possession. Although in fact the basis of nearly all
modern instruction in singing, empirical knowledge is always
unconsciously used. Second, empirical knowledge is always applied in the
prevailing mechanical spirit. The attempt is always made to translate
the sub-conscious [Pg 154]empirical understanding of the voice into rules for
direct mechanical management. Under the influence of the mechanical idea
the modern teacher’s most valuable possession, empirical knowledge of
the voice, becomes utterly unserviceable.
Thus far, the whole result of this work has been destructive. The
accepted Vocal Science has been shown to be erroneous in its conception
and unsound in its conclusions. The work cannot halt here. Vocal Science
must be reconstructed. This can be done only by following the general
plan of all scientific investigation, beginning with the observation of
all ascertainable facts bearing on the voice.
How can any facts be observed about the voice other than by the study of
the vocal mechanism? An answer to this question is at once suggested so
soon as scientific principles are applied to the subject. Strictly
speaking, the voice is a set of sounds, produced by the action of the
vocal organs. The scientific method of inquiry is therefore to begin by
observing these sounds. Sounds as such can be observed only by the sense
of hearing. It follows then that the attentive listening to voices is
the first step to be taken.[Pg 155]
Can any empirical knowledge of the voice be obtained by the mere
listening to voices? If so, we ought now to be in possession of any
facts which might be thus observed. Is it possible that information of
this character is already a common possession of the vocal world, and
yet that this information has never been applied in the investigation of
the voice? This is exactly the case. Many facts regarding the voice have
been observed so continually that they are a matter of common knowledge,
and yet these facts have never been recorded in a scientific manner.
Consider, for example, this remark about a famous singer, made by one of
the foremost musical critics of the United States: “Mme. T—— ‘s lower
medium notes were all sung with a pinched glottis.” How did this critic
know that the singer had pinched her glottis? He had no opportunity of
examining her throat with the laryngoscope, nor of observing her throat
action in any other way. In fact, the critic was seated probably
seventy-five feet from the artist at the time the tones in question were
sung. The critic had only one means of knowing anything about the
singer’s throat action, and that was contained[Pg 156] in the sound of the
tones. There must therefore have been something in the sound of the
tones which conveyed this information to the critical listener. For many
years this gentleman had been in the habit of listening closely to
singers, and he had found some way of estimating the singer’s throat
action by the character of the tones produced.
This same means of judging the manner of production from the sound of
the tones seems to have been utilized nearly two hundred years ago.
Speaking of the most frequent faults of tone-production, Tosi remarks:
“The voice of the scholar should always come forth neat and clear,
without passing through the nose or being choked in the throat.” Mancini
also speaks of the faults of nasal and throaty voice: “Un cantare di
gola e di naso.” A throaty tone, therefore, impressed these writers as
being in some way formed or caught in the singer’s throat. It may be set
down as certain that no pupil ever explained to either of these masters
how the objectionable sounds were produced. How then did Tosi and
Mancini know the manner in which a throaty tone is produced?[Pg 157]
We need not go back to the early writers to find out what is meant by a
throaty tone. Fully as many throaty singers are heard nowadays as the
old masters ever listened to. What do we mean when we say that a
singer’s voice is throaty? The answer to this question seems at first
sight simple enough: The tones impress us as being formed in the
singer’s throat. But what conveys this impression? Something in the
sound of the tone, of course. Yet even that is not enough. How can a
tone, merely a sound to which we listen, tell us anything about the
condition of the singer’s throat during the production of the tone? Here
again the answer seems simple: The listener knows that, in order to
produce a tone of like character, he would have to contract his own
throat in some way.
Here we have a highly significant fact about the voice. On hearing a
throaty tone, the listener can tell how this tone is produced; he feels
that he would have to contract his own throat in order to produce a
similar tone. Let us carry this discussion a little further. How does
the listener know this? Certainly not by actually singing a throaty
tone. When seated in a [Pg 158]concert hall, for example, and listening to a
throaty singer, the hearer cannot rise from his seat, sing a few throaty
tones himself, and then note how his throat feels. The critic just
mentioned did not sing some notes with “pinched glottis” in order to
learn how Mme. T—— sang her low tones. Evidently it is not necessary
actually to imitate the singer; the hearer gets the same result by
imitating the sounds mentally. In other words, when we hear throaty
tones we mentally imitate these tones; thus we know that we should have
to contract our own throats in order to produce similar tones.
But even here we cannot stop. To imitate the singer actually is one
thing; mental imitation is something entirely different. In the first
case, actual imitation, our muscular sense would inform us of the state
of throat tightening. But in the case of mental imitation there is no
actual tightening of the throat, nothing, at any rate, comparable to
what takes place in actual imitation. There is then a dual function of
the imagination; first, the mental imitation of the sound; second, the
imaginary tightening of the throat. The analysis of the mental process
must therefore be modified,[Pg 159] and stated as follows: When we listen to a
throaty tone we mentally imitate the tone; an imaginative function of
the muscular sense informs us what condition the singer’s throat assumes
for the production of the tone.
A similar operation takes place in listening to nasal voices. An
impression is conveyed by a nasal tone, through which the hearer is
informed of a condition of tightness or contraction somewhere in the
singer’s nose.
The terms applied to the two most marked forms of faulty
tone-production, nasal and throaty, are derived from impressions
conveyed by the sounds of the tones. These names, nasal and throaty,
refer to a feeling of tightness or contraction experienced in
imagination by the hearer; in one case this feeling is located in the
nose, in the other, in the throat. But the terms nasal and throaty are
general descriptions of faulty tones. Each one covers a wide range of
tone qualities. There is an almost infinite variety of throaty tones,
and of nasal sounds as well. The knowledge of the voice obtained by
listening to vocal tones is of equally wide extent. Every throaty tone,
whatever its precise [Pg 160]character, informs the hearer of the exact
condition of the singer’s throat in producing the tone. In short, every
vocal tone is thus analyzed by the critical listener, and referred in
imagination to his own throat. An insight into the singer’s vocal action
is imparted to the hearer through an imaginative process which always,
of necessity, accompanies the attentive listening to vocal tones.
Every vocal tone awakens in the hearer a set of imagined muscular
sensations. These sensations furnish the means for an exhaustive
analysis of the operations of the voice. The production of tone
therefore awakens two sets of muscular sensations, one actually felt by
the singer, the other felt in imagination by the listener. The former
are commonly known as the “singer’s sensations”; but, as will be
explained later, this expression is often very loosely applied. It is
advisable on this account to give a new name to the singer’s sensations,
and also to give a name to the muscular sensations awakened in the
hearer. Let us therefore call the sensations experienced by the singer
in the production of tone the “direct sensations of tone.” To the[Pg 161]
imaginary sensations of the hearer let us give the name, the
“sympathetic sensations of tone.”
These two terms will be used throughout the remainder of this work in
the meanings here given to them.
Direct sensations of tone are the sensations actually felt by the singer
as a result of the exercise of the vocal organs.
Sympathetic sensations of tone are the muscular sensations experienced
in imagination by the hearer as a result of the listening to the tones
of voices other than his own.[Pg 162]
CHAPTER II
SYMPATHETIC SENSATIONS OF VOCAL TONE
A peculiar relation of sympathy exists between the human voice and the
human ear. So intimate is this relation that the two might almost be
considered as forming one complete organ. One aspect of this relation
has already been noted, the guidance of the vocal organs by the sense of
hearing. There is now to be considered another feature of this relation
between voice and ear,—the assistance rendered by the vocal organs to
the sense of hearing.
That a sub-conscious adjustment of the vocal organs may supplement the
sense of hearing in the estimation of pitch is mentioned by Prof. Ladd.
Speaking of the ability, by no means uncommon, to tell the pitch of any
musical note heard, Prof. Ladd says: “Such judgment, however, may be,
and ordinarily is, much assisted by auxiliary discriminations of other
sensations which blend with those of the musical tone.[Pg 163] Among such
secondary helps the most important are the muscular sensations which
accompany the innervation of the larynx and other organs used in
producing musical tones. For we ordinarily innervate these organs (at
least in an inchoate and partial way)—that is, we sound the note to
ourselves—when trying carefully to judge of its pitch.” (Elements of
Physiological Psychology.)
Much more important in the study of the problem of tone-production are
the adjustments of the hearer’s vocal organs which were named the
sympathetic sensations of tone. This peculiar auxiliary to the sense of
hearing calls for the closest attention.
Sympathetic sensations of tone are awakened in the hearer through the
mere listening to the sounds of the human voice. Vocal tones impress the
listener’s ear in a manner entirely different from any other sounds. Not
only are the tones of the voice heard, just as other sounds are heard;
in addition to this, every vocal tone heard is mentally imitated, and
this mental reproduction of the tone is referred in imagination to the
hearer’s own vocal organs. Besides hearing the vocal tone as a sound
pure and simple, the [Pg 164]listener is also informed of the manner of throat
action by which the tone is produced.
This mental imitation and judgment of vocal tones is not a voluntary
operation. On the contrary it cannot even be inhibited. It is impossible
for us to listen to the voices of those about us, even in ordinary
conversation, without being to some extent aware of the various modes of
tone-production.
This idea of the mental imitation of voices may impress us at first as
highly mysterious. Sympathetic sensations of tone have been felt and
noted, probably ever since the human voice and the human ear were
developed. Yet the process is purely sub-conscious. It is performed
involuntarily, without thought on the part of the hearer, even without
any consciousness of the process. The hearer simply knows how the voices
to which he listens are produced. A throaty voice simply sounds throaty;
the hearer feels this, and pays no attention to the source of the
information. We take it as a matter of course that a nasal voice seems
to come through the speaker’s nose. Why a certain quality of sound gives
this impression we never stop to inquire. The[Pg 165] impressions of throat
action conveyed by other people’s voices seem so simple and direct that
nobody appears to have thought to analyze the psychological process
involved.
This psychological process is found on analysis to be highly complex. In
addition to the actual physical exercise of the sense of hearing, three
distinct operations are performed in imagination. These are the mental
imitation of the tone, the imagined adjustments of the vocal organs, and
the imaginative exercise of the muscular sense. Although simultaneously
performed, each of these four operations may be considered separately.
Hearing
As the judgment of vocal tones by sympathetic sensations is purely a
function of the sense of hearing, the keenness of these sensations
varies in each individual in proportion to the keenness of the ear. It
would be a great mistake to assert that we all feel these sympathetic
sensations with equal vividness. On the contrary, many people are so
inattentive to the qualities of sounds that they hardly know the meaning
of the term “nasal tone.”[Pg 166]
One trait in particular distinguishes the musician and the music lover;
this is, the possession of a keen sense of hearing. The ear is trained
by exercise in its own function,—hearing. The more attentively we
listen to music the higher do we develop our ability to discriminate
between musical sounds. Moreover, natural endowments vary in different
individuals, with regard to the ear, as with all other human faculties.
To appreciate fully the wonderful insight into vocal operations conveyed
by the sympathetic sensations of tone, a naturally keen musical ear is
required; further, this natural gift of a good ear must be developed by
attentive listening to music, vocal and instrumental, carried on through
several years.
Mental Imitation of Vocal Tones
That every sense has its counterpart in the imagination need hardly be
said. We know what it means to feel warm or cold, hungry or thirsty; we
know the taste of an apple, the scent of a rose. We can at will create
pictures before the mind’s eye. In the same way we can hear in
imagination any sound we choose to produce mentally.
An inseparable function of the sense of hearing[Pg 167] is the impulse to
imitate mentally the tones of speakers and singers. The imitation of
sounds is an instinctive operation. “Talking proper does not set in till
the instinct to imitate sounds ripens in the nervous system.” (The
Principles of Psychology, Wm. James, N. Y., 1890.) Little can be said
about the impulse to imitate voices mentally, further than that it is an
exercise of this same instinct.
Imagined Adjustments of the Vocal Organs
It has already been seen that the vocal organs have the ability to
adjust themselves, through instinctive guidance, for the production of
any tone demanded by the ear. This same ability is invoked in the mental
imitation of tones. In one case the muscular contractions are actually
performed; in the other the muscular adjustments are wholly or in part
imaginary.
It is highly probable that actual contractions of the laryngeal muscles
take place, under certain conditions, as an accompaniment to the
listening to voices. This is evident in the case of extremely aggravated
throaty and forced voices. In listening to the harsh, raucous cries of
many street[Pg 168] vendors, when calling out their wares, the hearer
frequently feels a sense of actual pain in his own throat.
Involuntary and unconscious contractions of the laryngeal muscles,
somewhat similar to those under consideration, are well known to
experimental psychologists. Prof. Ladd’s statement that these
contractions assist the ear in the judgment of absolute pitch has
already been cited. Another example of unconscious laryngeal movements
has been investigated by Hansen and Lehmann (“Ueber unwillkuerliches
Fluestern,” Philos. Studien, 1895, Vol. XI, p. 47), and by H. S.
Curtis (“Automatic Movements of the Larynx,” Amer. Jour. Psych., 1900,
Vol. XI, p. 237). The laboratory experiments of these investigators show
that when words, or ideas definitely expressed in words, are strongly
thought but not uttered, the vocal organs unconsciously adjust
themselves to the positions necessary for uttering the words. Curtis
says of these unconscious laryngeal contractions: “Such movements are
very common with normal people, and are comparatively easy of
demonstration.”
The apparatus used by Hansen and Lehmann[Pg 169] in their experiments consists
of two large concave reflectors. These are placed at a convenient
distance, one facing the other, so that two experimenters may be seated,
the first having his mouth at the focal point of one reflector, the
second with his ear at the focal point of the other. As the first
experimenter repeats mentally any words or phrases, these are found to
be unconsciously whispered. These sounds of whispering, inaudible under
ordinary conditions, are so magnified by the two reflectors as to be
distinctly heard by the second experimenter.
Curtis proved that actual movements of the larynx unconsciously
accompany intense thought. His demonstrations were conducted along lines
familiar to all students of experimental psychology. Similar experiments
would probably show that unconscious movements of the larynx also occur
during the listening to vocal tones.
A peculiarity of the laryngeal adjustments accompanying the listening to
voices is seen in the fact that the possession of a fine or well-trained
voice is not required in this process. It does not matter whether the
physical organs are capable of producing fine musical tones. The[Pg 170]
nervous equipment alone is involved; this is frequently highly
developed, even though the physical voice is very poor. A keen and
highly-trained ear is the only requisite. Players in the opera
orchestras often develop this faculty to a high degree, even though they
may never attempt to sing a note.
Muscular Sense
An exhaustive analysis of the various classes of sensations, commonly
grouped under the general heading of muscular sense, would involve a
mass of technicalities not necessary to the present purpose. It is
sufficient to bear in mind the limitations of this sense, and to notice
what it tells us, and what it does not tell.
Through the exercise of the muscular sense we are informed of the
movements, positions, and conditions of the different parts of the body.
Of specific muscular contractions very little information is conveyed.
Thus, when the arm is bent at the elbow the muscular sensations of the
movement are clear and definite; but, under normal conditions, these
sensations do not inform us that the movement results from the
contraction of the[Pg 171] biceps muscle. Knowledge of the muscular structure
of the body is not involved in muscular sense. The muscular sensations
of bending the arm are felt in precisely the same way by the professor
of anatomy and the ignorant child.
Further, no amount of attention paid to muscular sensations will inform
us exactly what muscles are contracted in any complex action. A single
stroke in the game of tennis, returning a swift service for example, may
involve some contraction of every muscle of the entire body. A skilful
player may observe with the utmost care the muscular sensations
accompanying this stroke; he would never be able to learn from these
sensations whether the number of muscles in his forearm is ten or one
hundred.
For the same reason the sympathetic sensations of tone tell us nothing
whatever of the muscular structure of the vocal organs. When listening
to a throaty voice, we feel that the singer’s throat is tightened,
stiffened, or contracted. But no matter how keen and vivid this
sensation may be, it leaves us in complete ignorance of the names and
locations of the muscles wrongly contracted. This is true, however[Pg 172]
thoroughly we may know the anatomy of the vocal organs.
Much of the prevailing confusion about the voice is due to a
misunderstanding of this point. When, for example, the musical critic
asserted that Mme. T—— sang certain tones with “pinched glottis,” he
fell into this error. His sympathetic sensations informed him of some
unnecessary tightening of the singer’s throat. From these sensations he
seems to have inferred that the glottis-closing muscles were too
strongly contracted. This assumption was not warranted by any
information conveyed in the sympathetic sensations.
It is not necessary now to determine to what extent the muscular
sensations accompanying the listening to voices are purely imaginative,
and to what extent they result from actual, though unconscious,
contractions of the listener’s throat muscles. The psychological process
is the same in either case.
Sympathetic sensations of tone always accompany the listening to voices.
While the psychological process is complex, this process is performed
unconsciously and involuntarily. Even[Pg 173] though the attention may be
definitely turned to the sympathetic sensations themselves, the mental
imitation and the laryngeal adjustments seldom rise into consciousness.
As a rule, the entire operation is purely sub-conscious. The listener
simply knows how the voices to which he listens are produced. This
knowledge has always been accepted as intuitive; but this is merely
another way of saying that the process of its acquirement is
sub-conscious.
Direct Sensations of Tone
In addition to the source of misunderstanding of the vocal action just
mentioned,—the attempt to define the precise muscular contractions
indicated in the sympathetic sensations, another common
misinterpretation of these sensations must be noted. As a consequence of
the sub-conscious character of the sympathetic sensations, the two
classes of muscular sensation of vocal tone, direct and sympathetic, are
frequently confounded and classed together as the “singer’s sensations.”
A third source of confusion is seen in the attempt to apply the
sympathetic sensations, by formulating rules[Pg 174] for the guidance of the
student, in performing specific actions for the management of the vocal
organs. All three of these topics will be considered in a later chapter.
Before approaching this subject let us see just what information may be
derived from the observation of the direct sensations of tone.
The direct sensations of tone are never so vivid, so precise, nor so
reliable as the sympathetic sensations. In other words, the hearer is
better able to judge of the singer’s throat action than the singer
himself. This may seem a paradoxical statement, but a brief
consideration will show it to be fully justified.
In the case of teacher and pupil, it will hardly be questioned that the
master hears the pupil’s voice to better advantage than the pupil. This
is also true when a trained singer’s tones are observed by a competent
hearer. The singer’s direct sensations are highly complex. They include
the muscular sensations accompanying the exertion of the breathing
muscles, and these are usually so intense as to overshadow the
sensations due to the laryngeal adjustments. On the other hand, the
hearer is free to pay close attention to[Pg 175] the sensations of throat
action, and therefore feels these much more keenly than does the singer.
On this account the direct sensations of tone are of vastly less value
in the study of the vocal action than are the sympathetic sensations.[Pg 176]
CHAPTER III
EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE VOICE
Through attention paid to the sympathetic sensations of tone, the
listener may carry on mentally a running commentary on the throat
actions of all those whose voices are heard. Continuing to use the word
empirical in the sense thus far adopted, it may be said that the summary
of the impressions conveyed in the sympathetic sensations of tone
constitutes empirical knowledge of the voice. In other words, empirical
knowledge of the voice is an understanding of the operations of the
vocal mechanism, obtained through the attentive listening to voices.
Let us consider first the running commentary on the throat action,
mentally carried on by the listener. This mental commentary is an
inseparable accompaniment of the listening to the voices of others,
whether in speech or song. As we are concerned now only with the problem
of tone-production in artistic singing, our consideration[Pg 177] will be
limited to the critical hearer’s observation of the tones of singers.
Let us imagine two friends to be seated side by side in the concert
hall, listening to the performance of a violin sonata by an artist of
about mediocre ability. Suppose one of the friends to be a highly
trained musical critic, the other to be almost unacquainted with music
of this class. Let us now inquire how the tones of the violin will
impress these two hearers; and further, let the inquiry be limited
strictly to the matter of tone, leaving out of consideration all
questions of composition and rendition.
As a matter of course, the tones of the violin will impress these two
listeners in widely different ways. The untrained observer will greatly
enjoy the beautiful tones,—supposing of course that he be gifted with a
natural fondness for music. But so far as musical value is concerned,
all the tones will sound to him practically alike.
For the trained hearer, on the other hand, every note drawn by the
performer from his instrument will have a distinct value. Some of the
tones will be true in pitch and perfect in quality. Some will vary
slightly from the correct pitch; others[Pg 178] will perhaps be in perfect
tune, and yet be marred in quality by faults of scratching, thinness,
roughness, etc.
When the two come to compare notes at the end of the performance the
trained critic will be utterly unable to convey to his friend his
impressions of the player’s technique. Vividly clear as it is to the
critic, his understanding of tonal values is lodged solely in his
cultivated ear. This understanding cannot be imparted in words; it must
be acquired by experience in actual listening to music.
Let us now imagine this same critic to be listening to a singer, not an
artist of the first rank, but one whose voice is marred by some slight
faults of production. In this case the critic will note exactly the same
sort of differences in tonal value as in the case of the violinist. Some
of the singer’s notes will be perfect musical tones, others will be
marred by faults of intonation or of quality. But a great difference
will be noted between faulty tones played on the violin, and faulty
tones sung by the human voice. In addition to their blemishes as musical
tones, the faulty notes of the voice also convey to the critical[Pg 179]
listener an idea of the state of the singer’s throat in producing them.
Every blemish on the beauty of a vocal tone, every fine shade of quality
which detracts from its perfection, indicates to the critical hearer
some faulty action of the singer’s vocal organs. The more faulty the
musical character of the singer’s tones the more pronounced is this
impression of faulty production. On the other hand, just so nearly as
the singer’s tones approach perfection as musical sounds, so do they
also impress the ear of the critical listener as indicating the approach
to the perfect vocal action.
The critic could not impart to his untrained friend the impressions made
by the violinist’s tones. Somewhat the same is true of the impressions
made by the tones of the voice on the critical ear. In voices of
extremely nasal or throaty sound these blemishes can, of course, be
detected by the ordinary hearer. But the fine shades of difference in
vocal tone quality, heard by the trained critic, cannot be noted by the
inexperienced listener.
This fine ability to discriminate between musical sounds comes only
through experience in listening[Pg 180] to music, better still, when this has
been combined with the actual study of music. But the ability to judge
the vocal actions of singers, through the sympathetic sensations of
tone, does not depend on any actual exercise of the listener’s own
voice. For the developing of this ability the exercise of the ear
suffices. The mere exercise of the ear, in listening to singers, entails
also the training of what may be called the “mental voice.” Attentive
listening to voices, involving as a natural consequence the
sub-conscious impressions of sympathetic sensations, results in the
development of a faculty to which this name, the mental voice, very
aptly applies.
A music-lover whose experience of hearing singing and instrumental music
has been wide enough to develop the mental voice in a fair degree,
possesses in this faculty a valuable means for judging singers. The
mental voice carries on a running commentary on the manner of production
of all the voices to which this music-lover listens. At every instant he
is informed of the exact condition of the singer’s throat. For him there
is an almost infinite variety of throaty tones, each one indicating some
degree and form[Pg 181] of throat tension or stiffening. A perfect vocal tone,
on the other hand, is felt to be perfectly produced, as well as
heard to be musically perfect.
Equipped with a highly trained sense of hearing, and the resulting
faculty of mental voice, the lover of singing has an unfailing insight
into the operations of the vocal mechanism. This understanding of the
workings of the vocal organs is the empirical knowledge of the voice.
This empirical knowledge of the voice can be possessed only by one who
is equipped with a highly cultivated ear. The keener the ear the more
precise and definite is this understanding of the voice. Season after
season, as the music-lover continues to attend concerts, operas, and
recitals, his feeling for the voice becomes gradually more keen and
discerning.
Further, empirical knowledge of the voice can be acquired in no other
way than by actual experience in listening to voices. No matter how keen
and definite are the impressions of throat action felt by the
experienced hearer, these impressions cannot be described to the
uninitiated. In fact, these impressions are to a great extent of a
character not capable of being recorded in[Pg 182] precise terms. The general
nature of a throaty tone, for example, is thoroughly understood. But of
the thousands of varieties of the throaty tone no adequate description
can be given. Each observer must learn for himself to hear these fine
shades of difference in tone quality.
Every experienced music lover has his own mental standard of tonal
perfection. The trained ear knows how a perfect musical tone should
sound, independent of the precise quality of the tone. The tone quality
is determined, of course, by the instrument on which it is sounded. But
along with the individual characteristics of the sound, the tones drawn
from every instrument, to be available in the artistic performance of
music, must conform to the correct standard. Knowing the general musical
character of the tones of all instruments, the cultured hearer can at
once detect any variation from this character. Further, he knows how the
tones of a badly-played instrument would sound if the instrument were
correctly handled. An unskilled trumpeter in an orchestra, for example,
may draw from his instrument tones that are too brassy, blatant, or
harsh. An observant hearer knows exactly what these[Pg 183] tones would be if
the instrument were skilfully played.
In just the same way the mental voice has its own standard of vocal
perfection. Every voice which falls below this standard is felt by the
critical hearer to be imperfectly used. When listening to a nasal singer
we know that the voice would be greatly improved in quality if the nasal
sound of the tones were eliminated. We feel that the correction of the
faults of production indicated by a throaty voice would add greatly to
the beauty of the voice. More than this, we can also form some idea how
an imperfectly produced voice would sound if all the faults of vocal
action were to be corrected.
A perfectly produced voice affects the ear in a peculiar and distinct
way. Not only is such a voice free from faults; it has also, on the
positive side, a peculiar character which renders it entirely different
from any wrongly used voice. The cultured hearer is impressed with a
sense of incompleteness and insufficiency in listening to a voice which
does not “come out” in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. This is true,
even though the voice is not marred by any distinct fault.[Pg 184]
A voice absolutely perfect in its production awakens a peculiar set of
sympathetic sensations. In addition to its musical beauty such a voice
satisfies an instinctive demand for the perfect vocal action. An
indescribable sensation of physical satisfaction is experienced in
listening to a perfectly managed voice.
On further consideration of this feeling of physical satisfaction
awakened by a perfectly produced voice, it seems a mistake to call it
indescribable. A beautiful description of this set of sympathetic
sensations has been handed down to us by the masters of the old Italian
school. This description is embodied in two of the traditional precepts,
those dealing with the open throat and the support of the tone.
Mention of the traditional precepts leads at once to the consideration
of another aspect of the empirical knowledge of the voice. Vocalists
have been attentively listening to voices since the beginning of the
modern art of singing. Although many of the impressions made by the
voice on the ear cannot be expressed in words, one set of impressions
has been clearly recorded. A marked difference was evidently noticed by
the[Pg 185] old Italian masters between the feelings awakened in the hearer by
a voice properly managed and those awakened by an incorrectly produced
voice. These impressions were embodied in a set of precepts for the
guidance of the singer, which are none other than the much-discussed
traditional precepts.
In other words, the traditional precepts embody the results of the old
masters’ empirical study of the voice. Considered in this light, the old
precepts lose at once all air of mystery and become perfectly
intelligible and coherent. To a consideration of this record of the
empirical knowledge of the voice the following chapter is devoted.[Pg 186]
CHAPTER IV
THE TRADITIONAL PRECEPTS OF THE OLD ITALIAN SCHOOL
There should be nothing mysterious, nothing hard to understand, about
the empirical precepts. It was pointed out in Chapter V of Part I that
these precepts contain a perfect description of correctly produced vocal
tone, so far as the impression on the listener is concerned. This means
nothing else than that the old precepts summarize the results of
empirical observation of correct singing. There is nothing new in this
statement; considered as empirical knowledge, the modern vocal teacher
understands the meaning of the old masters’ precepts perfectly well. The
misunderstanding of the subject begins with the attempt to apply the
precepts as specific rules for the direct mechanical management of the
voice. In this connection they were seen to be valueless. Let us now see
if the old precepts are found to contain any meaning of value to the[Pg 187]
vocal teacher when considered as purely empirical formulæ.
Each one of the precepts may be said to describe some special
characteristic of the perfect vocal tone, considered solely as a sound.
These characteristics may each be considered separately, that is, the
hearer may voluntarily pay close attention to any special aspect of the
vocal tone. The best plan for arriving at the exact meaning of the
precepts is therefore to consider each one in turn.
The Forward Tone
Every lover of singing is familiar with this characteristic of the
perfectly produced voice; the sound seems to come directly from the
singer’s mouth, and gives no indication of being formed at the back of
the throat. This characteristic of the perfect tone is simply heard. It
is not distinguished by any sympathetic sensations, but is purely a
matter of sound. On the other hand, a wrongly produced voice seems to be
formed or held in the back of the singer’s throat. The tones of such a
voice do not come out [Pg 188]satisfactorily; they seem to be lodged in the
throat instead of at the front of the mouth.
In the badly used voice the impression of throat is conveyed by the
sympathetic sensations awakened in the hearer. A striking difference
between correct and incorrect singing is thus noted. A wrongly produced
voice is felt by the hearer to be held in the singer’s throat. When
properly used the voice gives no impression of throat; it seems to have
no relation to the throat, but to be formed in the front of the mouth.
So much has been written about “forward emission” that the forward
characteristic of vocal tones seems to be enshrouded in mystery. As a
matter of fact, the forward tone is easily explained. The perfectly
produced voice issues directly from the mouth for the same reason that
the tones of the trombone issue from the bell of the instrument. It is
all a matter of resonance. This is well illustrated by a simple
experiment with a tuning fork and a spherical resonator reinforcing the
tone of the fork.
When the fork is struck, the ear hears the sound issuing from the
resonator, not that coming direct from the fork. This is brought out
[Pg 189]distinctly by placing the fork at a little distance from the resonator.
The listener can then definitely locate the source of the sound which
impresses the ear. Under these circumstances the sound coming from the
resonator is found to be many times more powerful than that coming
direct from the tuning fork. If left to its own judgment the ear takes
the resonator to be the original source of the sound.
In the voice the exciting cause of the air vibrations is located at the
back of the resonator,—the mouth-pharynx cavity. The sound waves in
this case can issue only from the front of the resonator,—the singer’s
mouth. No matter how the voice is produced, correctly or badly, this
acoustic principle must apply.
Why then does not the incorrectly used voice impress the hearer as
issuing directly from the mouth, the same as the correctly produced
tone? This is purely a matter of sympathetic sensations of throat
tightness, awakened by the faulty tone. Every wrongly used voice arouses
in the listener sympathetic sensations of throat contraction. This
impression of throat, noted by the hearer,[Pg 190] consists of muscular, not of
strictly auditory sensations.
As a statement of scientific fact, the forward-tone precept is
erroneous. It does not describe scientifically the difference between
correct and incorrect tone-production. Correctly sung tones are not
produced at the lips. Every vocal tone, good or bad, is produced by the
motion of the vocal cords and reinforced by the resonance of the
mouth-pharynx cavity. Only when considered as an empirical description
is the forward-tone precept of value. In this sense the precept
describes accurately the difference in the impressions made on the
hearer by correct and incorrect singing. A badly produced tone seems to
be caught in the singer’s throat; the correctly used voice is free from
this fault, and is therefore heard to issue directly from the singer’s
mouth.
This marked difference between correct and incorrect tone throws a
valuable light on the meaning of the correct vocal action. Every badly
used voice gives the impression of wrong or unnecessary tightness,
stiffening, and contraction of the throat. When perfectly used, the
voice does not convey any such impression of throat stiffness.[Pg 191]
The Open Throat
Just as with the forward tone, the meaning of the open throat is best
brought out by contrasting the impressions made on the hearer by a
perfect and a badly used voice. A badly produced tone seems to be
caught, or as Tosi expressed it, “choaked in the throat.” The singer’s
throat seems to be tightened and narrowed so that the sound has not
sufficient passageway to come out properly. On the other hand, the
perfectly used voice comes out freely, without interference or hindrance
at any point in the singer’s throat. There seems to be plenty of room
for the tone to come forth; in other words, the singer’s throat seems to
be open.
All these impressions are purely a matter of sympathetic sensations. In
listening to a faulty singer the hearer feels a sensation of tightness
and contraction of the throat. A well used voice awakens exactly the
opposite sensation, that of looseness and freedom of the throat.
Here again is seen the difference between correct and incorrect singing,
empirically considered. Judging from the impressions made by rightly and
wrongly used voices, any incorrect vocal[Pg 192] action involves a condition of
tightness and contraction of the throat. Perfect singing gives the
impression that the throat is loose and supple, and free from all
unnecessary tension.
The Support of the Tone
Following the plan of contrasting correct and incorrect singing, the
meaning of this precept is readily found. The perfect voice is felt by
the hearer to be firmly and confidently held by the singer in a secure
grasp of the throat muscles. Such a voice awakens the sympathetic
sensations of perfectly balanced muscular effect, similar to the
muscular sensations of the hand and forearm when an object is firmly
grasped in the hand.
A badly used voice seems to be convulsively gripped in the singer’s
throat. The tones seem to fall back into the throat for want of some
secure base on which to rest. This impression is conveyed by a peculiar
set of sympathetic sensations of highly unpleasant muscular tension far
back in the throat.
This precept, “Support the tone,” points to the difference already noted
between the right and the wrong vocal action. Badly produced tones[Pg 193]
indicate a state of excessive tension of the throat muscles. Correct
singing gives the impression that the throat muscles exert exactly the
requisite degree of strength, and no more.
Taken together, the open-throat and the forward-tone precepts embody an
admirable description of the sympathetic sensations awakened by perfect
singing. The singer’s entire vocal mechanism is felt to be in a
condition of lithe and supple freedom. There is no straining, no
constraint, no forcing, no unnecessary tension. Each muscle of the vocal
mechanism, and indeed of the entire body, exerts just the necessary
degree of strength.
Similar muscular sensations always accompany the expert performance of
any action requiring a high degree of dexterity. Whatever be the form of
exertion, skilful physical activity awakens muscular sensations of
perfectly balanced and harmonized contractions. This feeling of muscular
poise and adjustment is pleasurable in a high degree.
A keen enjoyment is experienced in the skilful performance of many
complex muscular activities. Much of the pleasure of skating, dancing,
rowing,[Pg 194] tennis, etc., is dependent on this feeling of muscular poise
and harmonious contraction. Healthy exercise is always normally
enjoyable; but skilful performance greatly enhances the pleasure. A
beginner learning to skate, for example, exerts himself fully as much as
the accomplished skater. Yet the beginner does not by any means derive
the same degree of pleasure from his exertions.
Precisely this feeling of balanced and harmonious muscular exertion is
experienced by the perfect singer. More than this, the hearer also,
through sympathetic sensations, shares the same pleasurable feeling.
This is the sensation described as the feeling of soaring, of poise, and
of floating, in many descriptions of the “singer’s sensations.”
Singing on the Breath
When the voice is perfectly used the tones seem to detach themselves
from the singer, and to float off on the breath. Nothing in the sound of
the tones, nor in the sympathetic sensations awakened, gives any
indication that the breath is checked or impeded in its flow. The
current of tone seems to be poured out on the breath just as[Pg 195] freely as
a quiet expiration in ordinary breathing.
This is a purely empirical description of perfect singing. As we know
very well, the vocal action is quite different from this description.
But the important point is that the phrase “singing on the breath” does
very accurately describe the impression made on the hearer by perfect
singing.
Singing on the breath represents the highest possible degree of purely
vocal perfection. One may attend operas and concerts for a whole season
and listen to a score of famous singers, and count oneself fortunate to
have heard even one artist who attains this standard of tonal
excellence. Singing on the breath is an effect of wondrous tonal beauty;
it is simply this, pure beauty, pristine and naïve.
With the slightest degree of throat stiffness or muscular tension,
singing on the breath is utterly impossible. So soon as the tones
indicate the merest trace of throat contraction, the free outflow of the
stream of sound is felt to be checked.
Coloratura singing, to be absolutely perfect, demands this degree of
tonal excellence. Singing on the breath and coloratura are indeed very[Pg 196]
closely allied. The modern school of musical criticism does not hold
coloratura singing in very high esteem. We demand nowadays expression,
passion, and emotion; we want vocal music to portray definite
sentiments, to express concrete feelings. Florid singing is not adapted
to this form of expressiveness. It is only sensuously beautiful; it
speaks to the ear, but does not appeal to the intellect.
Yet it may well be asked whether the highest type of coloratura singing,
pure tonal beauty, does not appeal to a deeper, more elemental set of
emotions than are reached by dramatically expressive singing. This
question would call for a profound psychological discussion, hardly in
place in a work devoted to the technical problem of tone-production. But
this much is certain: Coloratura singing still has a strong hold on the
affections of the music loving public. Even to-day audiences are moved
by the vocal feats of some famous queen of song fully as profoundly as
by the performance of a modern dramatic or realistic opera.
To describe a sound is an extremely difficult task. The tone of the
muted horn, for example,[Pg 197] is perfectly familiar to the average musician.
Yet who would undertake to describe in words the tone of the muted horn?
A description of the sounds produced by a perfectly managed voice is
almost as difficult to frame in words. Still the old Italian masters
succeeded in finding words to describe perfect singing. These few simple
phrases—open the throat, support the tone, sing the tones forward, sing
on the breath—embody a most beautiful and complete description of vocal
perfection. The empirical study of the voice can hardly be expected to
go further than this. From the old masters we have received a complete
record of all that need be known empirically about the voice.[Pg 198]
CHAPTER V
EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE IN MODERN VOICE CULTURE
It was pointed out in Chapter I of Part III that there is no possibility
of conflict between empirical and scientific knowledge. Modern Voice
Culture seems to present a direct contradiction of this statement. The
vocal teacher’s empirical understanding of the voice conflicts at every
step with his supposedly scientific knowledge. No doubt the reader is
already aware of the real meaning of this apparent contradiction. It
only bears out the philosophic rule; an accepted science must be
abandoned so soon as its deductions are found to be not in accord with
observed facts.
Modern methods of instruction in singing can be understood only by
following out this idea of conflict between known facts and accepted,
though erroneous, scientific doctrines. As we have seen, the only
universally accepted theory of supposedly scientific Voice Culture is
the idea[Pg 199] of direct mechanical guidance of the voice. Every vocal
teacher attempts to make his empirical knowledge conform to this
mechanical idea. As the empirical knowledge is correct, and the
mechanical idea a complete mistake, conflict between the two is
inevitable.
Every modern teacher of singing possesses in full measure the empirical
understanding of the voice. To this statement hardly an exception need
be made. Probably the most startling fact concerning the wide diffusion
of this knowledge is that the nature of this knowledge is so thoroughly
ignored. Because the psychological process is purely sub-conscious,
empirical knowledge is always indirectly and generally unconsciously
applied. In the teacher’s mind the most prominent idea is that of
mechanical vocal guidance. His attention is always directly turned to
this idea. Empirical knowledge, consisting merely of a succession of
auditory and muscular sensations, lurks in the background of
consciousness.
To the intelligent vocal teacher there is something peculiarly
fascinating about the study of tone-production. In listening to any
faulty singer we feel with the utmost precision what is wrong[Pg 200] with the
voice. Each imperfect tone informs us clearly and definitely just where
the wrong muscular contraction is located. It seems so easy to tell the
singer what to do in order to bring the tone out perfectly. Under the
influence of the mechanical idea we try to express this feeling in the
terms of muscular action. This attempt is never successful; the singer
cannot be brought to understand our meaning. Yet it is so clear in our
own minds that our inability to express it is extremely tantalizing. We
go on, constantly hoping to find a way to define the mechanical
processes so clearly indicated to the ear. We always feel that we are
just on the verge of the great discovery. The solution of the problem of
tone-production is almost within our grasp, yet it always eludes us.
It was stated in Chapter V of Part I that empirical knowledge of the
voice, based on the singer’s sensations, is used to supplement and
interpret the doctrines of mechanical vocal guidance. This is in the
main true, so far as the vocal teacher is aware. But here again the
result of the sub-conscious character of empirical knowledge of the
voice is seen. As a matter of fact the[Pg 201] real situation is the direct
reverse of that described in the chapter mentioned. The mechanical
doctrines are used in the attempt to interpret the empirical knowledge.
This fact is well brought out in the following passage from Kofler: “The
teacher must imitate the wrong muscle-action and tone of his pupil as an
illustration of the negative side.” (The Art of Breathing, N. Y.,
1889.) Kofler does not touch on the question, how the teacher is able to
locate the wrong muscle-action of the pupil. He takes this ability for
granted; it is so purely an intuitive process that he does not stop to
inquire into the source of this information of the pupil’s vocal action.
Through his sense of hearing he sub-consciously locates the faults in
the pupil’s tone-production. His only conscious application of this
knowledge is the attempt to explain to the pupil the wrong
muscle-action. This he naturally tries to do in the terms of mechanical
action and muscular operation. Thus the mechanical doctrine is used in
the attempt to explain the empirical knowledge. Yet the teacher is
conscious only of citing the mechanical rule, and believes this to cover
the entire instruction.[Pg 202]
In the preceding chapter it was seen that the perfectly produced vocal
tone may be considered in a variety of aspects. Each one of these
aspects is characterized by a fairly distinct set of sympathetic
sensations. Of faulty modes of throat action, as revealed by sympathetic
sensations, there is an almost infinite variety. Of this wide variety of
forms of throat tension the most prominent are those indicated by sets
of sympathetic sensations, the direct opposites of those characterizing
the perfect vocal action. Thus the open throat is indicated by one set
of sympathetic sensations, the lack of this characteristic of tone by an
opposite set, etc.
Whatever distinct fault of production the pupil’s tone indicates, the
master immediately notes the character of the faulty throat action. The
master feels, simply and directly, what is wrong with the student’s
tone-production. Whence this knowledge comes he does not stop to
inquire. Suppose the pupil to sing an exercise, and to produce tones
which stick in the throat, instead of coming out freely. The master
simply hears that the pupil’s voice is caught in the throat; he does not
observe that he is[Pg 203] informed of this condition by muscular as well as
auditory sensations.
This ignoring of the psychological nature of the impressions of tone is
not necessarily detrimental to successful instruction. On the contrary,
the master’s empirical insight into the vocal operations of the pupil
would probably not be advanced by an understanding of the psychological
process. It is sufficient for the teacher’s purpose to hear that the
pupil’s voice is caught in the throat. What robs this hearing, or
feeling, of all value is this: the master attempts to interpret the
sensation as an indication of the need of some specific muscular action,
to be directly performed by the pupil. To this end he cites the
mechanical rule, assumed to be indicated by the pupil’s faulty vocal
action. This may be, for example, the opening of the throat to give room
for the tone to expand. It seems so perfectly simple to the
teacher;—the pupil narrows his throat, and so holds in the tone; let
him expand his throat and the tone will come out freely. This conclusion
seems so clearly indicated by the sound of the tones that the master
almost inevitably gives the precise instruction: “Open your[Pg 204] throat and
let your voice come out.” This sums up, to the master’s satisfaction,
everything the pupil need do to correct this particular fault of
tone-production.
Other sets of sympathetic sensations, awakened by badly produced tones,
are interpreted in the same manner. A tone heard to be held in the back
of the throat is believed to indicate the need of bringing the voice
forward in the mouth. Other forms of throaty production are taken to
show a lack of support, a wrong management of the breath, a need of
breath-control, a misuse of nasal resonance, or an improper action of
the vocal cords. In all these attempts to interpret sympathetic
sensations by means of mechanical doctrines the teacher naturally relies
on those doctrines in which he believes most firmly. Sympathetic
sensations are indeed sometimes cited in proof of certain theories of
breath-control, and also of nasal resonance. Both these topics are
worthy of separate attention.
Sympathetic Sensations and Nasal Resonance
One of the most widely accepted theories of the vocal action is that the
higher notes of the voice[Pg 205] are influenced by reinforcing vibrations
located in the nose and forehead. Whether this idea was derived more
from direct than from sympathetic sensations need not be determined now.
It is at any rate certain that a perfectly sung tone gives to the hearer
the impression of nasal influence of some kind. The exact nature of this
influence has never been determined. It may be air resonance, or
sounding-board resonance, or both combined. Satisfactory proof on this
point is lacking. In the belief of the practical teacher, however, this
impression of nasal influence is the strongest argument in favor of
nasal resonance.
Turning now to the question of nasal quality, strictly speaking, tones
of this objectionable character always awaken the sympathetic sensations
of contraction somewhere in the nose. Why such a contraction should
cause this unpleasant sound of the voice is a profound mystery. Perhaps
wrong tension of the soft palate exerts an influence on the actions of
the vocal cords; or it may be that the form of the nasal cavities is
altered by the muscular contraction. This aspect of the vocal action has
never been scientifically investigated. The sympathetic sensation of
nasal[Pg 206] contraction or pinching is at any rate very pronounced.
Curiously, this sympathetic sensation is cited as an argument in favor
of their respective theories, by both the advocates and the opponents of
nasal resonance.
Sympathetic Sensations and Breath-Control
Certain forms of exaggerated throat stiffness are frequently held to
indicate the need of breath-control. The faulty vocal action in question
is analyzed by the breath-control advocates substantially as follows:
“Owing to the outflow of the breath not being checked at the proper
point, the entire vocal mechanism is thrown out of adjustment. The
singer exerts most of his efforts in the endeavor to prevent the escape
of the breath; to this end he contracts his throat and stiffens his
tongue and jaw. His tones are forced, harsh, and breathy; they lack
musical quality. His voice runs away with him and he cannot control or
manage it. In the attempt to obtain some hold on his voice he ‘reaches’
for his tones with his throat muscles. The more he tries to regain
control of the runaway breath the worse does his state become.”[Pg 207]
This extreme condition of throat stiffness is unfortunately by no means
rare. So far as concerns the sympathetic sensations awakened by this
kind of singing the condition is graphically described by the
breath-control advocates. But the conclusion is entirely unjustified
that this condition indicates the lack of breath-control. Only the
preconceived notion of breath-control leads to this inference. The
sympathetic sensations indicate a state of extreme muscular tension of
the throat; this is about the only possible analysis of the condition.
Empirical impressions of vocal tones determine the character of most
present-day instruction in singing. This means no more than to say that
throughout all vocal training the teacher listens to the pupil’s voice.
The impressions of tone received by the teacher’s ear cannot fail to
inform the teacher of the condition of the pupil’s throat in producing
the voice. For the teacher to seek to apply this information in
imparting the correct vocal action to the pupil is inevitable.
Almost every teacher begins a course of instruction by having the pupil
run through the[Pg 208] prescribed series of mechanical exercises and rules.
Breathing is always taken up first. Breath-control, laryngeal action,
registers, and resonance follow usually in this order. The time devoted
to this course of training may vary from a few weeks to several months.
This mechanical instruction is almost always interspersed with songs and
arias. The usual procedure is to devote about half of each lesson to
mechanical doctrines and the remainder to real singing.
Blind faith in the efficacy of this mechanical training is the teacher’s
only motive in giving it. Very little attention is paid to the sound of
the pupil’s voice during the study of mechanical rules and doctrines. It
is simply taken for granted that the voice must be put through this
course. Once the mechanical course has been covered, the pupil’s voice
is supposed, in a vague way, to be “placed.” From that time on, whether
it be at the end of two months of study or of two years, the instruction
is based solely on empirical impressions of tone.
Little remains to be said of the nature of this empirical instruction.
It always retains the mechanical aspect. Whatever fault of production
is[Pg 209] noted, the teacher seeks to correct the fault by applying some
mechanical rule. The futility of this form of instruction has already
been pointed out.
Only two ways of applying empirical knowledge of the voice are known to
the modern vocal teacher. These are, first, to tell the pupil to “open
the throat,” or to “support the tone,” or to perform whatever other
mechanical operation seems to be indicated as necessary by the sound of
the tone; second, to bid the student to “feel that the tone is
supported,” to “feel that the throat is open,” etc. Under these
circumstances the little advantage derived from empirical knowledge in
modern Voice Culture is readily understood.[Pg 210]
CHAPTER VI
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE VOICE
So far as any definite record can be made, the knowledge of the voice
obtained by attentive listening to voices has now been set down. The
next step in the scientific study of tone-production is the
consideration of all knowledge of the voice obtained from sources other
than empirical. In other words, the knowledge of the voice usually
classed as scientific is now to be examined.
Three sciences are generally held to contribute all that can possibly be
known about the vocal action. These are anatomy, acoustics, and
mechanics. Of these anatomy has received by far the most attention from
vocal scientists. The laws of acoustics, bearing on the voice, have also
been carefully considered. Beyond the theory of breath-control, little
attempt has been made to apply the principles of mechanics in Vocal
Science. Psychology, the science most intimately[Pg 211] concerned with the
management of the voice, has received almost no attention in this
connection.
A complete record of the teachings of the established sciences with
regard to the voice demands the separate consideration of the four
sciences mentioned. Each will therefore be treated in turn. In the case
of each of these sciences it is seen that the most essential facts of
the vocal action have been definitely established. Many questions still
remain to be satisfactorily answered which are of great interest to the
theoretical student of the voice. Yet in spite of the lack of exact
knowledge on these points, enough is now known to furnish the basis for
a practical science of Voice Culture.
The Anatomy of the Vocal Mechanism
This subject has been so exhaustively studied that nothing new can well
be discovered regarding the muscular structure of the vocal organs. In
all probability the reader is sufficiently acquainted with the anatomy
of the larynx and its connections. Only a very brief outline of the
subject is therefore demanded. The muscles concerned[Pg 212] with breathing
call for no special notice in this connection.
The special organ of voice is the larynx. This consists of four
cartilages, with their connecting ligaments,—the thyroid, the cricoid,
and the two arytenoids, and of nine so-called intrinsic muscles,—two
crico-thyroid, right and left, two thyro-arytenoid, two posterior
crico-arytenoid, two lateral crico-arytenoid, and one arytenoideus. The
inner edges of the thyro-arytenoid muscles form the vocal cords. The
hyoid bone, serving as a medium of attachment for the tongue, may also
be considered a portion of the larynx. By means of the extrinsic muscles
the larynx is connected with the bones of the chest, neck, and head.
While the muscular structure of the vocal organs is thoroughly known,
the actions of the laryngeal muscles in tone-production have never been
absolutely determined. This much is definitely established: Vocal tone
is produced when the vocal cords are brought together and held on
tension, and the air in the lungs is expired with sufficient force to
set the vocal cords in motion. The tension of the vocal cords can be
increased by the contraction of their muscular tissues, the[Pg 213] two
thyro-arytenoid muscles; further, increased tension of the cords can
also result from the tilting of the thyroid cartilage on the cricoid, by
the contraction of the crico-thyroid muscles.
It is also definitely proved that the pitch of the vocal tone varies
with the state of tension of the vocal cords; increasing the degree of
tension raises the pitch, decreasing the tension lowers it. As to the
relative importance of the different groups of muscles in varying the
tension of the vocal cords, nothing has been definitely proved.
In addition to the variations in pitch resulting from variations in the
tension of the vocal cords, there is also much ground for believing that
the pitch may be raised by shortening the effective length of the vocal
cords. This is apparently accomplished by the rotation of the arytenoid
cartilages; but the specific muscular contractions concerned in the
rotation of the arytenoids have not been located.
It is generally asserted by vocal theorists that the quality of the
vocal tone, on any one note, is determined mainly by the influence of
the resonance cavities. Dr. Mills says on this point: “When it is borne
in mind that the vocal bands[Pg 214] have little or nothing to do with the
quality of the tone, the importance of those parts of the vocal
apparatus which determine quality… becomes apparent.” (Voice
Production in Singing and Speaking, 1906.) This theory that the quality
of the tone is determined solely by the resonance cavities is directly
contradicted by Prof. Scripture. He proves that changes in tone quality
result from changes in vocal cord adjustment. This subject is more fully
treated in the following section. Even before this matter had been
definitely settled by Prof. Scripture, there was a strong presumption in
favor of the vocal cord adjustment theory. Howard advanced this idea in
1883. Several empirical observations support this theory. Most important
of these is the fact that a single tone, swelled from piano to
forte, goes through a wide variety of changes in quality.
Stockhausen’s mention of this fact has already been noted.
This fact tends to cast some doubt on the value of laryngoscopic
observation as a means of determining the laryngeal action. Under the
conditions necessary for examination with the laryngoscope it is
impossible for the singer to[Pg 215] produce any but soft tones in the head
quality of voice. Most of these tones, if swelled to forte, would
change from the head to the chest quality. It is probable that this
change in quality is effected by a corresponding change in the vocal
cord adjustment, as the conditions of the resonance cavities remain the
same. But this cannot be determined by laryngoscopic observation.
So far as the actions of the laryngeal muscles are concerned, no
difference can be defined between the correct vocal action and any
improper mode of operation. Sir Morell Mackenzie examined a large number
of people with the aid of the laryngoscope; of these, some were trained
singers, others, while possessed of good natural voices, had had no
vocal training whatever. Many variations were noted in the notes on
which changes of register occurred. But it could not be determined by
this mode of examination whether the subject was a trained singer or
not.
If there is one specifically correct mode of operation for the vocal
cords, this correct action has never been determined from the anatomy of
the organs. No doubt there is some difference between the muscular
actions of correct tone-production[Pg 216] and those of any incorrect operation
of the voice. But the nature of this difference in muscular action has
never been discovered by means of dissections of the larynx, nor by
laryngoscopic observation.
The Acoustic Principles of Tone-Production
An outline of the existing state of knowledge regarding the acoustic
principles of tone-production must be drawn mainly from one source. This
is the latest authoritative work on the subject, The Study of Speech
Curves, by E. W. Scripture (Washington, 1906). In this work Prof.
Scripture overthrows several of the conclusions of Helmholtz which had
hitherto furnished the basis of all the accepted theories of vocal
acoustics. Considering the eminently scientific character of all Prof.
Scripture’s research work, his thorough acquaintance with every detail
of the subject, and the exhaustive attention devoted to this series of
experiments, we are fully justified in accepting his present statements
as conclusively proved.
A first impression received from a careful reading of The Study of
Speech Curves is that the[Pg 217] subject is vastly more intricate than had
formerly been believed. Helmholtz’s theory of vocal acoustics was fairly
simple: The vocal cords vibrate after the manner of membranous reeds; a
tone thus produced consists of a fundamental and a series of overtones;
vowel and tone quality are determined by the influence of the resonance
cavities, which reinforce certain of the overtones with special
prominence. This theory is discarded by Prof. Scripture. “The overtone
theory of the vowels cannot be correct.” In place of this simple theory,
Prof. Scripture reaches conclusions too complicated to be given in
detail here. A brief outline of the subject must suffice for the needs
of the present work.
Prof. Scripture found that the nature of the walls of a resonating
cavity is of more importance than either its size, shape, or opening. A
flesh-lined cavity is capable of reinforcing tones covering a range of
several notes. Further, the vowel sound, and presumably also the tone
quality, are determined more by the action of the vocal cords than by
the adjustment of the resonance cavities. “The glottal lips vibrate
differently for the different vowels.” This adjustment of the glottal[Pg 218]
lips “presumably occurs by nervously aroused contractions of the fibers
of the muscles in the glottal lips.” Continuing, Prof. Scripture says:
“Physiologically stated, the action for a vowel is as follows: Each
glottal lip consists mainly of a mass of muscles supported at the ends
and along the lateral side. It bears no resemblance to a membrane or a
string. The two lips come together at their front ends, but diverge to
the rear. The rear ends are attached to the arytenoid cartilages. When
the ends are brought together by rotation of these arytenoid cartilages,
the medial surfaces touch. At the same time they are stretched by the
action of the crico-thyroid muscles, which pull apart the points of
support at the ends.
“In this way the two masses of muscle close the air passage. To produce
a vowel such a relation of air pressure and glottal tension is arranged
that the air from the trachea bursts the muscles apart for a moment,
after which they close again; the release of the puff of air reduces the
pressure in the trachea and they remain closed until the pressure is
again sufficient to burst them apart. With appropriate adjustments of
the[Pg 219] laryngeal muscles and air pressure this is kept up indefinitely,
and a series of puffs from the larynx is produced. The glottal lips open
partly by yielding sidewise,—that is, they are compressed,—and partly
by being shoved upward and outward. The form of the puff, sharp or
smooth, is determined by the way in which the glottal lips yield; the
mode of yielding depends on the way in which the separate fibers of the
muscles are contracted.
“These puffs act on the vocal cavity, that is, on a complicated system
of cavities (trachea, larynx, pharynx, mouth, nose) with variable
shapes, sizes, and openings. The effect of the puffs on each element of
the vocal cavity is double: first, to arouse in it a vibration with a
period depending on the cavity; second, to force on it a vibration of
the same period as that of the set of puffs. The prevalence of one of
the factors over the other depends on the form of the puff, the walls of
the cavities, etc.”
Prof. Scripture does not undertake to point out a difference between the
correct vocal action in tone-production, and any incorrect action. This
difference in action does not seem capable of[Pg 220] definition by any
analysis of the acoustic principles involved.
Mechanical Principles of the Vocal Action
In Part II, Chapter II, it was seen that the outflow of the breath in
tone-production is checked by the vocal cords, in accordance with
Pascal’s law of fluid pressures. Another law of mechanics bearing on
this operation is now to be considered, viz., the law of the
transformation and conservation of energy.
The application of the law of the transformation and conservation of
energy to the operations of the voice is nicely illustrated by the
well-known candle-flame test of (supposedly) breath-control. To perform
this test the singer is instructed to practise the exercises for
breath-control while holding a lighted candle with the flame an inch or
two in front of the lips. According to the idea of the breath-control
advocates, the expired breath should escape so slowly, and with so
little force, that no current of air can be detected at the lips, the
expiration therefore does not cause the candle flame to flicker.
Describing the toneless breathing exercises to[Pg 221] be practised with the
candle flame, Browne and Behnke say, “Let it be observed that the above
exercise is quite distinct from the well-known practice of singing
before a lighted candle, which is, comparatively speaking, an easy
matter.” (Voice, Song, and Speech.) A very striking fact is stated
correctly by Browne and Behnke,—there is no current of air created at
the lips during tone-production. Of the truth of this statement the
reader may readily convince himself by trying this same experiment with
a candle flame, or even with a lighted match. Hold a lighted match just
in front of the lips and sing a powerful tone. The quality of the tone
is of no consequence so long as it be powerful. Just sing, shout, yell,
the louder the better. You will find that the flame is less affected
under these circumstances than by the quiet expiration of ordinary
breathing.
Considerable practice and close attention are required in order to hold
back the breath in toneless breathing exercises. Whereas in producing
any kind of powerful tone the breath normally creates no current of air
at the lips.
There is no reason for considering this experiment a test of correct
tone-production. It is impossible to produce a powerful tone of any[Pg 222]
kind, good, bad, or indifferent, and at the same time to create an
appreciable current of air at the lips.
Needless to say, the breath-control theorists have entirely failed to
grasp the significance of the candle-flame experiment. Yet we have here
a demonstration of the mechanical law of tone-production.
Considered as a mechanical process, tone-production occurs when the
energy exerted by the expiratory muscles, in their contraction, is
converted into energy of motion of the vocal cords.[8] In other words,
tone-production is an example of the transformation of energy. The law
of the transformation and conservation of energy must therefore apply to
this operation. This law is stated as follows: “Energy may be
transformed from any of its forms to any other form. When energy is thus
transformed the quantity of energy in the resulting form or forms is
equal to the quantity of energy in the original form.”
The mechanical operation of tone-production comprises the following
transformations of energy: First, the energy exerted in the contraction
of the expiratory muscles is converted into energy of condensation or
elasticity of the air in the lungs and trachea. Second, this energy of
condensation of the air is converted into energy of motion of the vocal
cords. In other words, the expiratory energy is transformed into energy
of motion.
One objection, at first sight very serious, may be offered against this
statement: the amount of strength exerted in the contractions of the
breath muscles seems many times greater than is accounted for in the
motion of the vocal cords. The movements of the vocal cords are so
slight as to be observable only with the aid of a specially devised
apparatus, the stroboscope. Can all the expiratory force expended in
tone-production show such a small result? This apparent objection is
found to be groundless in view of the application in this operation of
Pascal’s law. As this topic was fully treated in Chapter II of Part II,
no further explanation is required here.[Pg 224]
The erroneous idea of vocal mechanics involved in the doctrine of
breath-control is now fully exposed. Tone can be produced only when the
expired air exerts a pressure on the vocal cords. There is no necessity
for any conscious or voluntary check on the expiration. The energy of
the expiration is expended in setting the vocal cords in motion. No
energy of condensation is left in the expired air the instant it has
passed the vocal cords. Beyond that point there is no expiratory
pressure.
In one sense it is true that the expiration is “controlled” in
tone-production. But this control is strictly an automatic action. The
vocal cords are adjusted, by the appropriate muscular contractions, to
move in response to the air pressure exerted against them. This action
involves, as a necessary consequence, the holding back by the vocal
cords of the out-rushing air. So long as the vocal cords remain in the
position for producing tone, they also control the expiration. In this
sense breath-control is an inseparable feature of tone-production.
All that need be known of the mechanics of the voice is therefore
perfectly plain. The vocal[Pg 225] cords are set in motion by the pressure
against them of the expired breath. This operation is in accordance with
Pascal’s law and the law of the conservation of energy.
But this analysis throws no light on the nature of the correct vocal
action. It is impossible for the voice to produce a sound in any way
other than that just described. In speaking or in singing, in laughing
or in crying, in every sound produced by the action of the vocal cords,
the mechanical principle is always the same. Nor is the bearing of this
law limited to the human voice. Every singing bird, every animal whose
vocal mechanism consists of lungs and larynx, illustrates the same
mechanical principle of vocal action.
Only passing mention is required of the fallacy of the breath-band
theory. The idea of any necessity of relieving the vocal cords of the
expiratory pressure is purely fanciful. How any one with even a slight
understanding of mechanics could imagine the checking of the breath by
the inflation of the ventricles of Morgagni, is hard to conceive.[Pg 226]
The Psychology of Tone-Production
This subject was treated, in some detail, in Chapter V of Part II. In
that chapter however we were concerned more with a destructive criticism
of the idea of mechanical tone-production than with the positive
features of vocal psychology. At the risk of some repetition it is
therefore advisable here to sum up the laws of psychology bearing on the
vocal action.
Considered as a psychological process, tone-production in singing
involves three distinct operations. First, the mental ear conceives a
tone of definite pitch, quality, vowel sound, and power. Second, the
vocal organs prepare to adjust themselves, by the appropriate muscular
contractions, for the production of the tone mentally conceived. Third,
the fiat of will is issued, causing the muscular contractions to be
performed. These three operations are executed as one conscious,
voluntary act. Let us inquire to what extent consciousness is concerned
with each operation.
As conscious volitional impulses, the mental conception of the tone, and
the fiat of will to[Pg 227] produce the tone, are well enough understood. These
two operations call for no extended consideration. We are at present
concerned only with the psychological laws bearing on the muscular
adjustments of the vocal organs.
Muscular contractions result from the transmission to the muscular
fibers of motor nerve impulses. These nerve impulses originate in the
motor nerve centers. They can never, under any circumstances, rise into
consciousness. Contractions of the voluntary muscles occur either as
reflex or as voluntary actions. In both cases the motor nerve impulses
originate in the same nerve centers. In the case of reflex actions these
lower muscular centers alone are involved; in voluntary actions the
originating of the motor impulses is “controlled” by consciousness. In
deciding that an action shall be performed, and in what way it is to be
performed, consciousness directs that each motor center involved shall
send out the appropriate discharges of nerve impulse.
Complex muscular activities require the sending out of nerve impulses
from various motor centers. Such activities are usually not performed
instantaneously, but require a longer or[Pg 228] shorter time. Thus we may
consider it as one action for the writer to rise from his chair, to
lower the window and adjust the shade, and then to return to his seat.
In this case a large number of motor centers are successively involved;
at the proper instant each center discharges its impulse. To this end
the motor centers must be instructed when to come into activity.
This distribution of nerve impulse is effected by the power of
coördination. In voluntary actions coördination is accompanied by
conscious control.[9] But coördination is not a function of the higher
cerebral centers, that is, of consciousness. How the connection is made
between the higher cerebral centers and the lower motor centers is a
complete mystery. All that can be said[Pg 229] is that the ideas of movements
are transmitted to the motor centers, and that these send out the
appropriate motor impulses.
Turning now to the muscular adjustments of the vocal organs, these
adjustments are seen to be independent of conscious guidance. When a
tone is mentally conceived the vocal organs adjust themselves, in
response to some mysterious guidance, for the production of the tone.
The vocal cords assume the appropriate degree of tension according to
the pitch of the tone to be sung. Both the quality of the tone and the
vowel are determined by the combined adjustments of the laryngeal
muscles and of the muscles which fix the shape and size of the resonance
cavities. The power of the tone is regulated by the force of the breath
blast; for each degree of power some special adjustment of the vocal
cords is required.
All these adjustments are executed as one concrete and individual act in
response to the volitional impulse contained in the mental conception of
the tone. The tone is conceived as a concrete whole. It is not normally
broken up mentally into its four aspects of pitch, quality, vowel, and[Pg 230]
power. True, each one of these four characteristics of the tone may be
separately considered by the singer. So also, to a certain extent, may
the adjustments of the vocal organs be performed with special reference
to one or the other characteristic of the tone. But in every case the
muscular contractions are performed without direct conscious guidance.
Whatever be the character of the tone mentally demanded, the vocal
organs instantly adjust themselves to produce the tone.
What is meant by saying that the muscular contractions are performed
without conscious guidance? Does this mean that the singer is
unconscious of the muscular contractions? Not at all. Muscular sense
informs the singer, more or less distinctly, of the state of contraction
or relaxation of the various muscles of the vocal organs. The singer
always knows fairly well the condition of the various parts of the vocal
mechanism. What is meant is this: The singer does not consciously direct
the vocal organs to assume certain positions and conditions, and does
not instruct the various muscles to contract in certain ways. The singer
does not need to know, and in[Pg 231] fact cannot know, what muscular
contractions are required to produce any desired tone.
Some connection exists between the organs of hearing and the vocal
mechanism. That this connection has a physical basis in the nervous
structure is fairly well established. “The centers for sight and for arm
movements, for instance, or those of hearing and of vocal movements,
have connecting pathways between them.” (Feeling and Will, Jas. M.
Baldwin, 1894.) The psychological law of tone-production is that the
vocal organs adjust themselves, without conscious guidance, to produce
the tones mentally conceived. In actual singing the practical
application of this law is that the voice is guided by the ear.
This guidance of the voice by the ear is incessant. It must not be
understood that the mental ear simply conceives a single tone, and that
the vocal machinery then operates without further guidance. All the
characteristics of the vocal tones,—pitch, quality, and power,—are
constantly changing. These changes require corresponding changes in the
muscular adjustments. The muscular contractions in turn are guided by
the[Pg 232] demands of the mental ear. As a psychological process, singing may
therefore be analyzed as follows: The singer mentally sings the
composition. In response to the ever varying demands of the ear the
vocal organs adjust themselves to produce actually the sounds thus
mentally conceived. The singer listens to these sounds and at every
instant compares them to the mental conception. If the tones actually
produced fail to correspond exactly to those mentally conceived, the
singer instantly notes this variation and bids the vocal organs to
correct it. The ear has therefore a dual function in singing. First, the
mental ear directs the voice in its operations. Second, the physical ear
acts as a check or corrective on the voice.
To sum up the psychology of tone-production, the singer guides or
manages the voice by attentively listening to the tones of the voice.
This is the only possible means of vocal guidance. The voice and the ear
together form one complete organ.
But we are still apparently as far as ever from the specific meaning of
the correct vocal action. That the voice instinctively obeys the
commands[Pg 233] of the ear may be true theoretically. In actual practice we
know that this does not by any means always occur. Singers are often
unable to get the desired results from their voices, even when they
believe themselves to rely on the sense of hearing. There must therefore
be some influence which under certain conditions interferes with the
operations of the vocal organs. The problem of tone-production is thus
seen to be one of psychology. It narrows down to this: What can
interfere with the normal action of the voice and prevent the vocal
organs from instinctively responding to the demands of the ear? A
satisfactory answer to this problem will be found only by a
consideration of all available knowledge of the voice, both empirical
and scientific. This forms the material of the final division of the
present work.[Pg 234]
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