INTRODUCTION

Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character through the
study of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
not here concerned. The older treatises,[1] which I have consulted,
have been of little or no service to me. The famous ‘Conférences’[2] of the
painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and
contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
‘Discours,’ delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Camper,[3] can
hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject. The
following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration.

Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
‘Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.’[4] He may with justice be
said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every way
deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his
service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which
exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One
of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the
muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the
pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for me
with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we
shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most important
expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell’s work
have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but
have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,[5] who
with great justice says:—“Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait être médité
par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l’homme, par les
philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus
légère et sous le prétexte de l’esthétique, c’est un des plus beaux
monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du moral.”

From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not attempt
to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He does
not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action under
different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the eyebrows are
raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person suffering from
grief or anxiety.

In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in
which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many
valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy
of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of
frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by French
writers the soucilier (corrigator supercilii), remarks with
truth:—“Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus
tranchés de l’expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.” He then
adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted “à
resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la face, comme il
convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans
ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l’organisation à revenir
sur elle-même, à se contracter et à s’amoindrir, comme pour offrir
moins de prise et de surface à des impressions redoutables ou importunes.”
He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or
origin of the different expressions, takes a very different view of the
subject to what I do.

In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy
of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in
describing the expression of fright, says:—“Le sourcil qui est
abaissé d’un côté et élevé de l’autre, fait voir que la partie
élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que
l’âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît
enflé,—nous fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du
cerveau en abondance, comme polir couvrir l’âme et la défendre du mal
qu’elle craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du
cœur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l’oblige, voulant
respirer, à faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s’ouvre
extrêmement, et qui, lorsqu’il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un
son qui n’est point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent
enflés, ce n’est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces
parties-là.” I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as
specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.

‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter.

In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his
‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ in which he analyses by means of
electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements of
the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his
photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite
passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne
may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles
in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the
muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle’s anatomical drawings[7]—the
best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate
action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended
this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was eminently
successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the
aid of electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about
the muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced
the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the
contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced
on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown
which muscles are least under the separate control of the will. He enters
very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to
explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of
certain emotions.

A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures
on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his
death, under the title of ‘De la Physionomie et des Mouvements
d’Expression.’ This is a very interesting work, full of valuable
observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a
single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—“Il résulte, de tous les
faits que j’ai rappelés, que les sens, l’imagination et la pensée
elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu’on la suppose, ne peuvent
s’exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se
traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou métaphoriquement, dans
toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la racontent tous, suivant leur
mode d’action propre, comme si chacun d’eux avait été directement
affecté.”

Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements, I
will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing
at billiards. “Si une bille dévie légèrement de la direction que le joueur
prétend lui imprimer, ne l’avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du
regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement
symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des mouvements non moins
significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d’une impulsion
suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accusés au
point d’éveiller le sourire sur les lèvres des spectateurs.” Such
movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As
often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has always
pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he
has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man
sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it
to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit,
unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found
effectual.

As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
following case:—“un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son
maître présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses
yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les
yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
pouvait être entendu.” Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the
ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs
during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object,
pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have
looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have
listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated
together through long-continued habit.

Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of his
views. In 1867 he published his ‘Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und
Physiognomik.’ It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair
notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much
as can be briefly told: “the muscular movements of expression are in part
related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial
impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all
expressive muscular movements.” (s. 25) Again, “Expressive movements
manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the
face, partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion
originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly
also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense.” (s. 26.)
If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell’s work, he would probably not have
said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the
nature of pain; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes,
and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good
remarks are scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter
refer.

Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need
not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has
treated the subject at some length. He says,[8] “I look upon the
expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to be
a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling or
consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily
members.” In another place he adds, “A very considerable number of the
facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that states of
pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an
abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.” But the above law of
the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light on
special expressions.

Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his ‘Principles of
Psychology’ (1855), makes the following remarks:—“Fear, when strong,
expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations
and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would accompany
an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive passions are
shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of the
teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls;
and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of
prey.” Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number of
expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in
following out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but
who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly
similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,[9] “It has been maintained
that what are called the external signs of passion, are only the
concomitants of those voluntary movements which the structure renders
necessary.” Mr. Spencer has also published[10] a valuable essay on the
physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on “the general law that
feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily
action,” and that “an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive,
will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not
suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones.” This law I
believe to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.’[11]

All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of Mr.
Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of Evolution—appear
to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came
into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus
convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are “purely
instrumental in expression;” or are “a special provision” for this sole
object.[12]
But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial
muscles as we do,[13] renders it very improbable that these muscles
in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would
be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles
solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, independently
of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost all
the facial muscles.

Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
“the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred, more
or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts.” He
further maintains that their faces “seem chiefly capable of expressing
rage and fear.”[14] But man himself cannot express love and
humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping
ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved
master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of
volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and
smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no
doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special
instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further
enquiry on the subject was superfluous.

Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle has
been developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of
the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks:[16] “Le
créateur n’a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des besoins de la mécanique;
il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l’on me pardonne cette manière de
parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel muscle,
un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois, lorsqu’il a voulu que les signes
caractéristiques des passions, même les plus fugaces, fussent écrits
passagèrement sur la face de l’homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une
fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner
à tout être humain la faculté instinctive d’exprimer toujours ses
sendments par la contraction des mêmes muscles.”

Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,[17] “The completely
different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of the
fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite
ignorant.”

No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate
as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything
and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as
pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural
history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair
under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth
under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief
that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The
community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species, as in
the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man and by
various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in
their descent from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds
that the structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved,
will look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting
light.

The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often
extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly
perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to
state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion,
our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten
or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious
proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error;
for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any
expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr.
Duchenne’s great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states,
that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he
ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single
muscle.

In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind,
I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place,
to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell
remarks, “with extraordinary force;” whereas, in after life, some of our
expressions “cease to have the pure and simple source from which they
spring in infancy.”[18]

In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so
I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr. J.
Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and
who, as I found, had already attended to the subject. This excellent
observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and
descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I can hardly
over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of
Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on
two or three points.

Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles
in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus
produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It
fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a
word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and
both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old
man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words
which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by
almost everyone, though described in not exactly the same terms; and these
may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified.
On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in
regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by
convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when
I first looked through Dr. Duchenne’s photographs, reading at the same
time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with
admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions.
Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I
should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have
been.

Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have
looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a
few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in
works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial
muscles destroy beauty.[19] The story of the composition is generally
told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories.

Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much
evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have
associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the
features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of
man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions are true
ones,—that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional expressions
or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life, would probably
have differed in the different races, in the same manner as do their
languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following
printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that
actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were
written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention
had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been
greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript,
a few additional remarks:—

(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
and by the eyebrows being raised?

(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be
visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?

(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and
head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?

(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?

(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the
inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call
the “Grief muscle”? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique,
with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is transversely
wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the
eyebrows are raised in surprise.

(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled
round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?

(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he
addresses?

(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly
shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight
frown?

(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?

(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?

(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
Europeans?

(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into
the eyes?

(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with the
eyebrows raised?

(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?

(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I
know not how these can be defined.

(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally
in negation?

Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans
would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives
would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of
comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly
beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under
any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under
which it occurred, would possess much value.

To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines,
to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have
taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names,
&c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my
present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct and
savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been
recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression
itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the
answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always
received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus
acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world
with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting as
evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental
disposition of all the races, of mankind.

Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding
how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of
mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes,
or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals,
we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we may feel
safe that their expressions are not conventional.

From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, and
our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from knowing
in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the
exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long
familiarity with the subject,—from all these causes combined, the
observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I
have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is
difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the
features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of
the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I
hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,—of the
insane,—of the different races of man,—of works of art,—and
lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected
by Dr. Duchenne.

But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the cause
or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we can
by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see
only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the
same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained,
is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether the same
general principles can be applied with satisfactory results, both to man
and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the
most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the truth of any
theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of
investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the study
seems well fitted to excite.

Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were
commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I have
occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was already
inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the derivation of
species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C.
Bell’s great work, his view, that man had been created with certain
muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as
unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our
feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been in
some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such habits had been
acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be
viewed under a new aspect, and each expression demanded a rational
explanation. This belief led me to attempt the present work, however
imperfectly it may have been executed.

---

I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am
deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited by
various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under
which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great kindness
and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have
received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my
queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian
aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It will
be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the
outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have
been received from the north.

Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by himself,
and for sending me several of the following letters, namely:—From
the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland,
Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel
Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the
Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settlement at
Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a
teacher at a school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from
all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a
police magistrate and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are
highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station
is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to
observe many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He
compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long
resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a
remote part of Gippsland, Victoria.

I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller, of
Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me others
made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.

In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has answered
only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably full,
clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which the
observations were made.

The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks
of Borneo.

Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach (to
whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining
engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had never
before associated with white men. He wrote me two long letters with
admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He likewise
observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.

The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for me
the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from others
whom he could trust.

In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the
Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression
of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe
conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in the
presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West,
the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on
certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens,
carefully observed the various tribes of men therein employed during a
considerable period, and no one has sent me such full and valuable
details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical
studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am
much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some of my queries.

Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to the
negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with white men,
such observations would have possessed little value. In the southern parts
of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me
many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations
on the natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, the
opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief
Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern
regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians,
answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations made
on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge. Professor and
Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of the natives,
as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile.

On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with the
Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression, addressed to
him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock
attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the
Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews
Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed with special
care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the ‘Smithsonian
Report’) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United
States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines; and
his answers have proved of the highest value.

Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.——

As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of this
volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1)
copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell’s work, and two others, with more
accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde’s well-known ‘Handbuch der
Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ The same letters refer to the same
muscles in all three figures, but the names are given of only the more
important ones to which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend
much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so
distinct as they are here represented. Some writers consider that these
muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired;[20] but others make the
number much larger, amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau.
They are, as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very
variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They are also variable in function. Thus the
power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different
persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according
to Dr. Piderit,[22] variable in a remarkable degree; and other
such cases could be given.

Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already
expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to
have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these
photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy
of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman
numerals.

I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which
he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A
distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me two
drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the other in a humble and
caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches
of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some of the
photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf
of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means
of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity
is ensured.