Chapter V — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS

The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger—Astonishment
and Terror.

The Dog.—I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the
appearance of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions,
namely, with erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the
neck and back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and
rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is
sometimes said “to have his back up.” Of the above points, the stiff gait
and upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks[501]
that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused
to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude
of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the muscles and
consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of associated
habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles, and consequently
to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted. There is
also reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some short
preparation, or some degree of innervation, before being brought into
strong action. My own sensations lead me to this inference; but I cannot
discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. Paget,
however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly contracted with the
greatest force, without any preparation, they are liable to be ruptured,
as when a man slips unexpectedly; but that this rarely occurs when an
action, however violent, is deliberately performed.

With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend (but
whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles being
more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of the
hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is raised. A
dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with high, elastic
steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held nearly so
stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned out into an open
field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides, the head and tail
being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about from pleasure,
throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is with various
animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in
certain cases, is determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a
horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so
that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.

When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their
play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely towards
his enemy.

{illust. caption = FIG. 14.—Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
Wood.

The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master were
described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in the head
and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements, with the
tail extended and wagged from side to side. The ears fall down and are
drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the eyelids to be elongated, and
alters the whole appearance of the face. The lips hang loosely, and the
hair remains smooth. All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I
believe, from their standing in complete antithesis to those naturally
assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind. When a
man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of
these movements in a slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of
the body, and without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their
affection by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or
patted by them.

Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and
the reader can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of
animals in general, including the dog, he says,[502] “C’est
toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses
ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible,
l’animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se
propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu’aux
extrémités de la colonne vertébrale, la queue se ploie et s’agite.”
Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their ears in
order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may be concentrated
on the caresses of their master!

Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by
licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs,
and then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom
they were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully
licking their puppies—the dearest object of their love—for the sake
of cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short absence, a
few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become
associated with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It
is now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to both
sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed, and though at
all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck with the manner in
which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it
on me; and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.

The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling affectionate,
like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for
from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object has
become firmly associated in their minds with the emotion of love.

The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a strong
sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their
bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters, but sometimes throw
themselves on the ground with their bellies upwards. This is a movement as
completely opposite as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly
possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a
wolf-like shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so
powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on the
road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between
his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the ground,
belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly than by words,
“Behold, I am your slave.”

A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is
exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning. This was
noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,

“And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound
Salutes thee cow’ring, his wide op’ning nose
Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes
Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.”
The Chase, book i.

Sir W. Scott’s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it is
common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr.
Riviere, who has particularly attended to this expression, informs me that it
is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite common in a lesser
degree. The upper lip during the act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling,
so that the canines are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the
general appearance of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C.
Bell[503] remarks “Dogs, in their expression of
fondness, have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their
gambols, in a way that resembles laughter.” Some persons speak of the
grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar,
though more pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their
bark of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a
grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters,
almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though not
energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in
some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with affection, to act
through habit and association on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each
other, or their masters’ hands.

I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a dog when
cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected
and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes
dull. Under the expectation of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in
an extravagant manner, and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state
of mind is inherited, or runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the
Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he
becomes a nuisance.

An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the whole
body.

Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and eyes
intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation. If it be a
sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned obliquely from side
to side in a most significant manner, apparently in order to judge with more
exactness from what point the sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly
surprised at a new noise, turning, his head to one side through habit, though
he clearly perceived the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when
their attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or
attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up,
as if to make a slow and stealthy approach.

A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is
felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who were playing
loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his body trembling, with his
heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could hardly be counted, and
panting for breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner as a terrified
man does. Yet this dog had not exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and
restlessly about the room, and the day was cold.

Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being tucked
in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied by the ears
being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head, as in
snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is pleased or affectionate.
When two young dogs chase each other in play, the one that runs away always
keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits,
careers like a mad creature round and round his master in circles, or in
figures of eight. He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious
kind of play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is
particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or
frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk. In this
case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in play, it appears
as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other catching him by the tail;
but as far as I can find out, dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner.
I asked a gentleman, who had kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to
other experienced sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a
fox; but they never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in
danger of being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these
cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters, and
that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail is then
drawn closely inwards.

A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail may be
observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals
fight together, they are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each
other’s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of
their legs were seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; hence
they approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible
inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient
point; the tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In
this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards. So
again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting, tuck in
their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the hind-quarters of
another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey from behind, the
hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this
were done merely to save the tail from being injured. We have also seen the
reverse of these movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps,
the tail is almost always carried aloft.

As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears directed
backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the sake of hearing the
footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in this same
position, and the tail tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have
repeatedly noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of
some object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need
to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this
position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is
similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the time when
this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did not call her, but
she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time she wished much for her
dinner; and there she stood, first looking one way and then the other, with her
tail tucked in and ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of
perplexed discomfort.

Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception of the
grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are common to all the
individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most of them are likewise common
to the aboriginal parents of the dog, namely the wolf and jackal; and some of
them to other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when
caressed by their masters, jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their
ears, lick their master’s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves
on the ground belly upwards.[504] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal,
from the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight, like a
dog, with his tail between his legs.

It has been stated[505] that foxes, however tame, never display any of
the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years
ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time,
that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail,
depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The
black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight degree. But
I believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters, and I have been
assured that when frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation
which I have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
would appear that animals which have never been domesticated—namely
wolves, jackals, and even foxes—have nevertheless acquired, through the
principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not probable
that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating
dogs.

Cats.—I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9),
when feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude
and occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready
for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
side. The hair is not erected—at least it was not so in the few
cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth
are shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the
attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in
any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog
approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her
fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position convenient
or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed
and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with certainty
for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is
common to many other animals—for instance, to the puma, when
prepared to spring;[506] but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes,
as I infer from Mr. St. John’s account of a fox lying in wait and seizing
a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various
snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would
appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable
desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely
liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free,
and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it
is curled or lashed about.

All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with slightly
arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected; and she rubs
her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The desire to rub
something is so strong in cats under this state of mind, that they may
often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or
against door-posts. This manner of expressing affection probably
originated through association, as in the case of dogs, from the mother
nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from the young themselves
loving each other and playing together. Another and very different
gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been described, namely, the
curious manner in which young and even old cats, when pleased, alternately
protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing against and
sucking their mother’s teats. This habit is so far analogous to that of
rubbing against something, that both apparently are derived from actions
performed during the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by
rubbing so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact
with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their
friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves
by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand,
their tongues seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more
flexible tongues of dogs.

Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright, the
terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig.
15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side.
The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens are
playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other. From
what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of expression
are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined to
believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they ruffle their
feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make themselves look as big
as possible, so cats stand upright at their full height, arch their backs,
often raise the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair, for the same
purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch its back, and is thus
figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens have never
seen any tendency to this action in the larger feline animals, such as
tigers, lions, &c.; and these have little cause to be afraid of any
other animal.

Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter, under
various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different sounds. The
purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration and
expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and ocelot
likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, “emits a peculiar short
snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.”[507] It is said that the
lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.

Horses.—Horses when savage draw their ears closely back,
protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit, draw
back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar manner.[508]
When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable,
they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears, and looking intently
towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is expressed by pawing the
ground.

The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One day
my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for the
machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more
distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not for
the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his nostrils;
and these consequently have become endowed with great powers of expansion.
This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, and the
palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly associated
during a long series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror
has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away
at full speed from the cause of danger.

Ruminants.—Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in
so slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which he
holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He also
often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from that of
an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up clouds of
dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated by flies, for
the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois
when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through their noses; and
this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades. The musk-ox of the
Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the ground.[509]
How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for from inquiries
which I have made it does not appear that any of these animals fight with
their fore-legs.

Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back
their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the
ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the
Formosan deer (Cervus pseudaxis) approached me in a curious
attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed
back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From the
expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he approached
slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not lower
his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns
with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when enraged.

Monkeys.—The various species and genera of monkeys express
their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see in
the following chapters, the different races of man express their emotions
and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world. Some of
the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way, namely
from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have had no opportunity
of observing any one species of the group under all circumstances, my
miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under different states of the
mind.

Pleasure, joy, affection—It is not possible to distinguish in
monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the expression
of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind
of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are
attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered, the
lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions.
Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased the form of the
lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered. If a
young chimpanzee be tickled—and the armpits are particularly
sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,—a more
decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the laughter is
sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards;
and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But
this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more
plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the
chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which
respect they differ from us. But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as
Mr. W. L. Martin,[510] who has particularly attended to their
expression, states.

Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound; and
Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their laughter
ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces, which, as
Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have also noticed
something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne—and I
cannot quote a better authority—informs me that he kept a very tame
monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during meal-times some
choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly
raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an
incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of main, could
be plainly perceived in this animal.

The Cebus azaræ,[511] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved
person, utters a peculiar tittering (kichernden) sound. It also
expresses agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth,
without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it
would be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is
different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are
uttered. Another species of Cebus in the Zoological Gardens (C.
hypoleucus) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise
draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of
the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (Inuus ecaudatus)
to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of
the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly
moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being
exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which
we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this
slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on
this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or
rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment.
Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth
was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and
a hoarse barking noise was uttered.

The Anubis baboon (Cynocephalus anubis) was first insulted and put
into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the
baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased.
When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed
more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the chest
are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon, and with some
other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips which are
spasmodically affected.

I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which two
or three species of Alacacus and the Cynopithecus niger draw back
their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by
being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the mouth
are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are
exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as
one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and
apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are
thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower
eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this wrinkling is not
conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the face.

Painful emotions and sensations.—With monkeys the expression
of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate
anger; and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A
woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have come
from Borneo (Macacus maurus or M. inornatus of Gray), said
that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton,
have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping
so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however,
something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept in
the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been seen to
weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself when
much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states[512] that the eyes of the
Cebus azaræ fill with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow,
when it is prevented getting some much desired object, or is much
frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the Callithrix
sciureus “instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear;” but
when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens was teased, so as
to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not, however, wish to throw
the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt’s statement.

The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out of
health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children.
This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements, fallen
countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.

Anger.—This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of
monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[513] in many different
ways. “Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and
savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to
spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many
display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the
same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the
teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage
defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons,
display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp,
abrupt, reiterated cry.” Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some
species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by
the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears. The Cynopithecus
niger, lately referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time
depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing its teeth; so
that the movements of the features from anger are nearly the same as those
from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distinguished only by those
familiar with the animal.

Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very odd
manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of yawning.
Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in the same
compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus alternately opening
their mouths; and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr.
Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each other that they
are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case.
As I could hardly credit the reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett
insulted an old baboon and put him into a violent passion; and he almost
immediately thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus[514]
behave in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger, as was
observed by Brehin with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another
manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand, “like an angry man
striking the table with his fist.” I have seen this movement with the
baboons in the Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather
to represent the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of
straw.

Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the Macacus rhesus, when
much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another monkey
attacked a rhesus, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of
a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the
battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same
time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which
is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively assert
that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the
brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become still
more vividly coloured.

With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to
look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered
or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and
down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.[515] As we associate in
the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows with definite
states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eyebrows by
monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed a man who had a
trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any corresponding
emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some
persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and
upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not
amused or pleased.

A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like tish-shist,
turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little more
angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise. A
young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious
resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely
open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed.
She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head.
She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly,
and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon (Hylobates syndactylus)
in a passion has been described[516] as behaving in
almost exactly the same manner.

The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
anything—in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[517]—and
likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape
of the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the
sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him,
and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though
to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.

Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on the
floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never
before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the most
steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to kiss
it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards each
other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They next
made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes before
the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands
at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and finally seemed
almost frightened, started a little, became cross, and refused to look any
longer.

When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and requires
precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally close our lips
firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our movements by
breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang. The poor little
creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies on
the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed
about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and at the
same time slightly protruded.

Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs and
chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the
whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys. This
may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable, and in part to
the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements are thus rendered
less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their eyebrows their foreheads
become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In comparison with man, their
faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to their not frowning under any
emotion of the mind—that is, as far as I have been able to observe,
and I carefully attended to this point. Frowning, which is one of the most
important of all the expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the
corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered and brought together, so
that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. Both the orang and
chimpanzee are said[518] to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely
brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands
into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both
a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but
although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor
was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees
from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would
certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but
only once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled
the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face,
slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a
frown on the forehead of the orang.

The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair,
throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering terrific
yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman[519] state that the scalp
can be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power
possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of
voluntarily moving their scalps.[520]

Astonishment, Terror—A living fresh-water turtle was placed
at my request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on
their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few feet, and
then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was
curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle than of a
living snake which I had formerly placed in their compartment;[521]
for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys ventured to
approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of the larger
baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of
screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the Cynopithecus
niger, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely opened eyes,
and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the turtle was placed in
its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid,
jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or
please the turtle.

I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved up
and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man by a
slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he
gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it
elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of close
attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and, with lowered or
rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,—an
expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would throw
back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine
and finally taste the food.

In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished. Mr.
Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a considerable
length of time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst listening
intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open. This
fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is more general
than a widely open mouth under the sense of astonishment. As far as I have
been able to observe, monkeys breathe more freely through their nostrils
than men do; and this may account for their not opening their mouths when
they are astonished; for, as we shall see in a future chapter, man
apparently acts in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of
quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of
breathing as quietly as possible.

Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the Macacus rhesus grow pale
from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their
excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an
excess of terror.

Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says[522]
that “the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and
fear;” and again, when he says that all their expressions “may be
referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary
instincts.” He who will look at a dog preparing to attack another dog or a
man, and at the same animal when caressing his master, or will watch the
countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when fondled by his keeper,
will be forced to admit that the movements of their features and their
gestures are almost as expressive as those of man. Although no explanation
can be given of some of the expressions in the lower animals, the greater
number are explicable in accordance with the three principles given at the
commencement of the first chapter.