Chapter VI — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING

The screaming and weeping of infants—Forms of features—Age at
which weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on weeping—Sobbing—Cause
of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming—Cause
of the secretion of tears.

In this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man under
various states of the mind will be described and explained, as far as lies
in my power. My observations will be arranged according to the order which
I have found the most convenient; and this will generally lead to opposite
emotions and sensations succeeding each other.

Suffering of the body and mind: weeping.—I have already
described in sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme
pain, as shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body
and the teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often
accompanied or followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter
prostration, or faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme
fear or horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind, passes
into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these states will be
the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall almost confine myself
to weeping or crying, more especially in children.

Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or discomfort,
utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming their eyes are
firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled, and the forehead
contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened with the lips
retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume a squarish form;
the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The breath is inhaled almost
spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants whilst screaming; but I have
found photographs made by the instantaneous process the best means for
observation, as allowing more deliberation. I have collected twelve, most
of them made purposely for me; and they all exhibit the same general
characteristics. I have, therefore, had six of them[601] (Plate I.)
reproduced by the heliotype process.

The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of the eyeball,—and
this is a most important element in various expressions,—serves to
protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged with blood, as will
presently be explained in detail. With respect to the order in which the
several muscles contract in firmly compressing the eyes, I am indebted to
Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some observations, which I have since
repeated. The best plan for observing the order is to make a person first
raise his eyebrows, and this produces transverse wrinkles across the
forehead; and then very gradually to contract all the muscles round the
elves with as much force as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with
the anatomy of the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts
1 to 3. The corrugators of the brow (corrugator supercilii) seem to
be the first muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards
and inwards towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that
is a frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause
the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators, and
produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be enabled
to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of the
corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal muscles of
the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin of the
forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across the
base of the nose.[602] For the sake of brevity these muscles will
generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding the
eyes.

When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper lip[603]
likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have been expected
from the manner in which at least one of them, the malaris, is
connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually contract the
muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the force, that his
upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one of
the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. If he keeps his
mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles round the eyes, and then
suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that the pressure on his eyes
immediately increases. So again when a person on a bright, glaring day
wishes to look at a distant object, but is compelled partially to close
his eyelids, the upper lip may almost always be observed to be somewhat
raised. The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who are forced
habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes, wear from this same
reason a grinning expression.

The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts of
the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,—the
naso-labial fold,—which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to
the corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen
in all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of a
crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
laughing or smiling.[604]

As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the
mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth. The
action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give to the
mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the
accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,[605] in describing a baby
crying whilst being fed, says, “it made its mouth like a square, and let
the porridge run out at all four corners.” I believe, but we shall return
to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor muscles of the
angles of the mouth are less under the separate control of the will than
the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is only doubtfully
inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to contract, and is
the last to cease contracting. When older children commence crying, the
muscles which run to the upper lip are often the first to contract; and
this may perhaps be due to older children not having so strong a tendency
to scream loudly, and consequently to keep their mouths widely open; so
that the above-named depressor muscles are not brought into such strong
action.

With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit, when
it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing to the
contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of the naked
head and face becoming at the same time reddened with blood. As soon as
the screaming-fit actually began, all the muscles round the eyes were
strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the manner above
described; so that at this early period the features assumed the same form
as at a more advanced age.

Dr. Piderit[606] lays great stress on the contraction of
certain muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as
eminently characteristic of a crying expression. The depressores anguli
oris, as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time,
and they indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same
manner on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched
appearance of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as
remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the
consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of
this contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst
crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the mucus and tears, and
to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.

After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes are
reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having been
impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted, still
twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or everted,[607]
with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn downwards. I have
myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons, that when tears
are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a pathetic story, it is
almost impossible to prevent the various muscles. which with young
children are brought into strong action during their screaming-fits, from
slightly twitching or trembling.

Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to nurses
and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the lacrymal
glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed this
fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my coat the open
eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to
water freely; and though the child screamed violently, the other eye
remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears. A similar slight
effusion occurred ten days previously in both eyes during a screaming-fit.
The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this
child, whilst screaming badly, when 122 days old. This first happened 17
days later, at the age of 139 days. A few other children have been
observed for me, and the period of free weeping appears to be very
variable. In one case, the eyes became slightly suffused at the age of
only 20 days; in another, at 62 days. With two other children, the tears
did NOT run down the face at the ages of 84 and 110 days; but in a third
child they did run down at the age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was
positively assured, tears ran down at the unusually early age of 42 days.
It would appear as if the lacrymal glands required some practice in the
individual before they are easily excited into action, in somewhat the
same manner as various inherited consensual movements and tastes require
some exercise before they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more
likely with a habit like weeping, which must have been acquired since the
period when man branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo
and of the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.

The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has once been
acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner suffering of
all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even though accompanied
by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The character of the crying,
however, changes at a very early age, as I noticed in my own infants,—the
passionate cry differing from that of grief. A lady informs me that her
child, nine months old, when in a passion screams loudly, but does not
weep; tears, however, are shed when she is punished by her chair being
turned with its back to the table. This difference may perhaps be
attributed to weeping being restrained, as we shall immediately see, at a
more advanced age, under most circumstances excepting grief; and to the
influence of such restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of
life, than that at which it was first practised.

With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be caused
by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its being
thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous races, to
exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception, savages weep
copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J. Lubbock[608]
has collected instances. A New Zealand chief “cried like a child because
the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour.” I saw
in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a brother, and who
alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed heartily at
anything which amused him. With the civilized nations of Europe there is
also much difference in the frequency of weeping. Englishmen rarely cry,
except under the pressure of the acutest grief; whereas in some parts of
the Continent the men shed tears much more readily and freely.

The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They also
weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of grief. The
length of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, as well as
the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic girl wept for a whole
day, and afterwards confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was because she
remembered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows to promote their
growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time rocking themselves
backwards and forwards; “and if spoken to, they stop their movements,
purse up their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth, and burst out
crying.” In some of these cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted
appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but in other cases
an effort of any kind excites weeping, independently of any sorrowful
idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of
violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent ravings. We
must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding of tears by
the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint; for certain
brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a
special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even
after a complete state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech
lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep;[609] but it is said that
this is not the case with cretins.

Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme
agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience
show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in
association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the
habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be
increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,[610] who long resided in
New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in
abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take
pride in crying “in the most affecting manner.”

A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands does
little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An old and
experienced physician told me that he had always found that the only means
to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who consulted him, and
who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and
to assure them that nothing would relieve them so much as prolonged and
copious crying.

The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short and
rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more advanced
age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,[611] the glottis is
chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard “at the
moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis, and
the air rushes into the chest.” But the whole act of respiration is
likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier. With
one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations were so
rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing; when 138
days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently followed
every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly voluntary and
partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at least in part due
to children having some power to command after early infancy their vocal
organs and to stop their screams, but from having less power over their
respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to act in an involuntary or
spasmodic manner, after having been brought into violent action. Sobbing
seems to be peculiar to the human species; for the keepers in the
Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never heard a sob from any
kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly whilst being chased and
caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus see that there is a close
analogy between sobbing and the free shedding of tears; for with children,
sobbing does not commence during early infancy, but afterwards comes on
rather suddenly and then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit is
checked with advancing years.

On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
screaming.—We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the
surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With
older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and
unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles
may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to interfere
with vision.

Sir C. Bell explains[612] this action in the following manner:—“During
every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres of
the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and defending the
vascular system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse
communicated to the blood in the veins at that time. When we contract the
chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in the veins
of the neck and head; and in the more powerful acts of expulsion, the
blood not only distends the vessels, but is even regurgitated into the
minute branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a
resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might be inflicted on
the delicate textures of the interior of the eye.” He further adds, “If we
separate the eyelids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries and
struggles with passion, by taking off the natural support to the vascular
system of the eye, and means of guarding it against the rush of blood then
occurring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and the
eyelids everted.”

Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C.
Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud laughter,
coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. A man
contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose. I asked one of
my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as soon as he began,
he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed this repeatedly,
and on asking him why he had every time so firmly closed his eyes, I found
that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had acted instinctively or
unconsciously.

It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these muscles,
that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it suffices that the
muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst
by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent vomiting or
retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the chest being filled with
air; it is then held in this position by the closure of the glottis, “as
well as by the contraction of its own fibres.”[613] The abdominal
muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its proper muscles
likewise contracting, and the contents are thus ejected. During each
effort of vomiting “the head becomes greatly congested, so that the
features are red and swollen, and the large veins of the face and temples
visibly dilated.” At the same time, as I know from observation, the
muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted. This is likewise the case
when the abdominal muscles act downwards with unusual force in expelling
the contents of the intestinal canal.

The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round
the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their arms
alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was hardly
any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.

As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes during
violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a fundamental
element in several of our most important expressions, I was extremely
anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell’s view could be substantiated.
Professor Donders, of Utrecht,[614] well known as one of
the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of
the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published the
results.[615]
He shows that during violent expiration the external, the intra-ocular,
and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways,
namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the arteries, and by the
return of the blood in the veins being impeded. It is, therefore, certain
that both the arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less distended
during violent expiration. The evidence in detail may be found in
Professor Donders’ valuable memoir. We see the effects on the veins of the
head, in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face of a man
who coughs violently from being half choked. I may mention, on the same
authority, that the whole eye certainly advances a little during each
violent expiration. This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular
vessels, and might have been expected from the intimate connection of the
eye and brain; the brain being known to rise and fall with each
respiration, when a portion of the skull has been removed; and as may be
seen along the unclosed sutures of infants’ heads. This also, I presume,
is the reason that the eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were
starting from their sockets.

With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from
his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely
removes the dilatation of the vessels.[616] At such times, he
adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the
eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball.

Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that the
eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
expiration; but there is some. It is “a fact that forcible expiratory
efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels” of the
eye.[617]
With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a
case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough, which in his
opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and another
analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort would
probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting the eyeball
by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Even the expectation or
chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an
object moving too near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids.
We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell’s observations, and
more especially from the more careful investigations by Professor Donders,
that the firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is
an action full of meaning and of real service.

We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads
to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept
widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction of the
depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the cheeks
likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief
expressive movements of the face during crying apparently result from the
contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also find that the
shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some connection with,
the contraction of these same muscles.

In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles may
serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration.
I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones, always close
their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though dogs do not do
so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young
orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always closed their eyes in
sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming violently. I gave a small
pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American division, namely, a Cebus, and
it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on a subsequent occasion
whilst uttering loud cries.

Cause of the secretion of tears.—It is an important fact
which must be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the
mind being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and
thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is
only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the involuntary
and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears is that
of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with their eyelids
firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have attained the age of
from two to three or four months. Their eyes, however, become suffused
with tears at a much earlier age. It would appear, as already remarked,
that the lacrymal glands do not, from the want of practice or some other
cause, come to full functional activity at a very early period of life.
With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or wailing from any
distress is so regularly accompanied by the shedding of tears, that
weeping and crying are synonymous terms.[618]

Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as laughter
is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles round the eyes,
so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud laughter are uttered,
with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations, tears stream down the face.
I have more than once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm of
violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular muscles and those
running to the upper lip were still partially contracted, which together
with the tear-stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an
expression not to be distinguished from that of a child still blubbering
from grief. The fact of tears streaming down the face during violent
laughter is common to all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a
future chapter.

In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the orbicular
muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely down the
cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to irritating
matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the
secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my informants, a surgeon,
to attend to the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up from the
stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning
from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently observed a lady
under a similar attack; and he is certain that in neither case an atom of
matter was ejected from the stomach; yet the orbicular muscles were
strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted. I can also speak
positively to the energetic contraction of these same muscles round the
eyes, and to the coincident free secretion of tears, when the abdominal
muscles act with unusual force in a downward direction on the intestinal
canal.

Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and forcible
expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the body are
strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During this act tears
are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling down the cheeks.

I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not, as
I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and I
have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I am
not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure of
the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general action by which
almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered rigid. It
is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which often
accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,[619] the smelling a
delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably
originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the
eyes.

Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: “I have observed
some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight rub (attouchement),
for example, from the friction of a coat, which caused neither a wound nor
a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles occurred, with a very profuse
flow of tears, lasting about one hour. Subsequently, sometimes after an
interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the same muscles re-occurred,
accompanied by the secretion of tears, together with primary or secondary
redness of the eye.” Mr. Bowman informs me that he has occasionally
observed closely analogous cases, and that, in some of these, there was no
redness or inflammation of the eyes.

I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner,
or which shed tears. The Macacus maurus, which formerly wept so
copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to
belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were carefully
observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly, and they
seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their cages so
rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No other monkey,
as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular muscles
whilst screaming.

The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
“lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than
the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.” Speaking of
another elephant he says, “When overpowered and made fast, his grief was
most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration, and he lay on the
ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.”[620]
In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the Indian elephants positively
asserts that he has several times seen tears rolling down the face of the
old female, when distressed by the removal of the young one. Hence I was
extremely anxious to ascertain, as an extension of the relation between
the contraction of the orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man,
whether elephants when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these
muscles. At Mr. Bartlett’s desire the keeper ordered the old and the young
elephant to trumpet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as
the trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones,
were distinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the
old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and
lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal
degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however,
is so different from the Indian species that it is placed by some
naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet
loudly, exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles.

From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I think,
be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the eyes, during
violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly compressed, is,
in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion of tears. This
holds good under widely different emotions, and independently of any
emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted without
the contraction of these muscles; for it is notorious that they are often
freely shed with the eyelids not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled.
The contraction must be both involuntary and prolonged, as during a
choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. The mere involuntary
winking of the eyelids, though often repeated, does not bring tears into
the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and prolonged contraction of the several
surrounding muscles suffice. As the lacrymal glands of children are easily
excited, I persuaded my own and several other children of different ages
to contract these muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to
continue doing so as long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly
any effect. There was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not
more than apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the
already secreted tears within the glands.

The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some mucus,
is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as some
believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may be
moist,[621]
and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But another, and at least
equally important function of tears, is to wash out particles of dust or
other minute objects which may get into the eyes. That this is of great
importance is clear from the cases in which the cornea has been rendered
opaque through inflammation, caused by particles of dust not being
removed, in consequence of the eye and eyelid becoming immovable.[622]
The secretion of tears from the irritation of any foreign body in the eye
is a reflex action;—that is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve
which sends an impression to certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit
an influence to other cells, and these again to the lacrymal glands. The
influence transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good reason to
believe, the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries;
this allows more blood to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces
a free secretion of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including
those of the retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances,
namely, during an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes
affected in a like manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.

It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial in
its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes, if
these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on the
principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the
lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would often
recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed channels, a
slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of
tears.

As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this nature
had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied to the
surface of the eye—such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory action, or
a blow on the eyelids—would cause a copious secretion of tears, as
we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into action through
the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils are irritated by
pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly closed, tears are
copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from a blow on the nose, for
instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging switch on the face produces, as I
have seen, the same effect. In these latter cases the secretion of tears
is an incidental result, and of no direct service. As all these parts of
the face, including the lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the
same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible that the
effects of the excitement of any one branch should spread to the
nerve-cells or roots of the other branches.

The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions, in a
reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements have been
kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a very
intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately related
together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong light
acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little tendency
to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having small,
old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes excessively
sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight causes forcible
and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When
persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually strain the
waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very often
follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to light. In
general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of the ciliary
structures concerned in the accommodative act, are prone to be accompanied
with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to
inflammation, but implying a want of balance between the fluids poured out
and again taken up by the intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended
with any lacrymation. When the balance is on the other side, and the eye
becomes too soft, there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. Finally,
there are numerous morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes,
and even terrible inflammations, which may be attended with little or no
secretion of tears.

It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of reflex
and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those relating
to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina of one eye
alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye moves after a
measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in accommodation to
near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made to converge.[623]
Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows are drawn down under an
intensely bright light. The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an object
is moved near the eyes, or a sound is suddenly heard. The well-known case
of a bright light causing some persons to sneeze is even more curious; for
nerve-force here radiates from certain nerve-cells in connection with the
retina, to the sensory nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and
from these, to the cells which command the various respiratory muscles
(the orbiculars included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that
it rushes through the nostrils alone.

To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit or
other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids causes a
copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic
contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should in
a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems possible, although the
voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not produce any such
effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough with nearly
the same force as he does automatically; and so it is with the contraction
of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell experimented on them, and found that
by suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light
are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with the fingers; “but
in sneezing the compression is both more rapid and more forcible, and the
sparks are more brilliant.” That these sparks are due to the contraction
of the eyelids is clear, because if they “are held open during the act of
sneezing, no sensation of light will be experienced.” In the peculiar
cases referred to by Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that
some weeks after the eye has been very slightly injured, spasmodic
contractions of the eyelids ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse
flow of tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely
to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible that the
pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye, although effected
spasmodically and therefore with much greater force than can be done
voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by reflex action the secretion
of tears in the many cases in which this occurs during violent expiratory
efforts.

Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex manner
on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory efforts the
pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the eye is increased,
and that the return of the venous blood is impeded. It seems, therefore,
not improbable that the distension of the ocular vessels, thus induced,
might act by reflection on the lacrymal glands—the effects due to
the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye being thus
increased.

In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind that
the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner during
numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the principle
of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels, even a moderate
compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of the ocular
vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the glands. We
have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being almost always
contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle crying-fit, when
there can be no distension of the vessels and no uncomfortable sensation
excited within the eyes.

Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed in
strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting
conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is least under
the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily performed. The
secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the influence of the will;
therefore, when with the advancing age of the individual, or with the
advancing culture of the race, the habit of crying out or screaming is
restrained, and there is consequently no distension of the blood-vessels
of the eye, it may nevertheless well happen that tears should still be
secreted. We may see, as lately remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a
person who reads a pathetic story, twitching or trembling in so slight a
degree as hardly to be detected. In this case there has been no screaming
and no distension of the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain
nerve-cells send a small amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the
muscles round the eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells
commanding the lacrymal glands, for the eyes often become at the same time
just moistened with tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes
and the secretion of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it
is almost certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit
nerve-force in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are
remarkably free from the control of the will, they would be eminently
liable still to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward
signs, the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person’s mind.

As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that if,
during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are readily
established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud
peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are distended)
as often and as continuously as they have yielded when distressed to
screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life tears would have
been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the one state of mind as
under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or even a pleasing thought,
would have sufficed to cause a moderate secretion of tears. There does
indeed exist an evident tendency in this direction, as will be seen in a
future chapter, when we treat of the tender feelings. With the Sandwich
Islanders, according to Freycinet,[624] tears are actually
recognized as a sign of happiness; but we should require better evidence
on this head than that of a passing voyager. So again if our infants,
during many generations, and each of them during several years, had almost
daily suffered from prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of
the eye are distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable,
such is the force of associated habit, that during after life the mere
thought of a choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to
bring tears into our eyes.

To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such chain
of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in any way,
cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly as a call to
their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion serving relief.
Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels
of the eye; and this will have led, at first consciously and at last
habitually, to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes in order to
protect them. At the same time the spasmodic pressure on the surface of
the eye, and the distension of the vessels within the eye, without
necessarily entailing any conscious sensation, will have affected, through
reflex action, the lacrymal glands. Finally, through the three principles
of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels—of
association, which is so widely extended in its power—and of certain
actions, being more under the control of the will than others—it has
come to pass that suffering readily causes the secretion of tears, without
being necessarily accompanied by any other action.

Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a bright
light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our understanding how
the secretion of tears serves as a relief to suffering. And by as much as
the weeping is more violent or hysterical, by so much will the relief be
greater,—on the same principle that the writhing of the whole body,
the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering of piercing shrieks, all give
relief under an agony of pain.